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European Islam

Not to be confused with Islam in Europe.

Three religions at one place, the proof of great coexistence.
A Roman Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, and Muslim mosque are located in the same square in Bosanska Krupa, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

European Islam, or Euro-Islam, is a hypothesized new branch of Islam[1] that historically originated and developed among the European peoples of the Balkans[2] (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo,[3] and Turkey)[4] and parts of countries in Eastern Europe with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria, Montenegro, North Macedonia,[5] and some republics of Russia)[5][6][7][8] which constitute of large populations of European Muslims.[5][6][7][8] Historically significant Muslim populations in Europe include the Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians,[3] Gorani, Torbeshi, Pomaks, Bosniaks, Chechens, Muslim Albanians, Ingushs, Greek Muslims, Vallahades, Muslim Romani people, Balkan Turks, Turkish Cypriots, Cretan Turks, Yörüks, Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, Lipka Tatars, Kazakhs, Gajals,[2] and Megleno-Romanians from Notia today living in Turkey,[9] although the majority are secular.[3][6][7]

The terms "European Islam" and "Euro-Islam" were originally introduced at a conference presided by Carl E. Olivestam, senior lecturer at Umeå University, in Birmingham in 1988, and subsequently published in the Swedish handbook: Kyrkor och alternativa rörelser ("Churches and Alternative Movements"). "European Islam" defines the ongoing debate on the social integration of Muslim populations in Western European countries such as France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands.[8][10][11] There are three Islamic scholars who participate in the debate on "Euro-Islam": Enes Karić,[12] Bassam Tibi,[13][14] and Tariq Ramadan,[8][14] who adopted the term in the second half of the 1990s but use it with different meanings.[14] The foremost Western, Non-Muslim scholars of political science and/or Islamic studies involved in the debate on "Euro-Islam" are Jocelyne Cesari, Jørgen S. Nielsen, and Olivier Roy.[8][10]

Proponents

Bassam Tibi

German-Syrian Bassam Tibi is considered the original coiner of the term "Euro-Islam",[14] which he used for the first time in his 1992 paper Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam", published in 1995,[13] to describe a type of Islam that embraces Western political values, such as liberal democracy, religious pluralism, secularism, tolerance, and the separation between religion and state.[15] He argues that Muslims in Europe must create a specific form of Islam that can coexist with European values.[16] The term reflects a concept for the integration of Muslims as European citizens, often assuming a liberal and progressive interpretation based on the idea of Europeanizing Islam.[16] Tibi dissociates himself from the Islamists, who reject Euro-Islam; he estimates that they amount to 3–5% of the Muslims currently living in Europe. He says they are nevertheless a dangerous minority since they want to "hijack" the Muslim community and other values of civil society. More precisely, Tibi seeks to dissociate his reasoning on Euro-Islam from that of Tariq Ramadan, whom he considers a rival within Islam in Europe.[14]

Tibi speaks of the need of Muslims to become "European citizens of the heart".[17] Tibi insists that Euro-Islam means secularity, the acceptance of separation between religion and state, as well as that Muslims living in Europe should embrace European values.[1] As contrast he sees the ghettoization of the Muslims with potential for conflict.[16] Therefore, Euro-Islam is for Tibi a way out from the issue of the ethnicization of Muslim migration in Europe and a democratic alternative to the so-called "ethnicity of fear".[16][18] Despite his efforts for the establishment of European Islam, after 25 years of leadership towards promoting it as a driving force of reform among Muslims living in Europe, Bassam Tibi in 2016 announced "I capitulate" in the German political magazine Cicero, stating that the "headscarf Islam" has triumphed over the "Euro-Islam".[19]

Tariq Ramadan

Tariq Ramadan is erroneously considered to be one of the coiners of the term "European Islam".[14] Ramadan calls for creating a new European-Muslim identity in his book To Be a European Muslim (1999).[8][20] He demands participation of Muslims in social and cultural life in conformation with European culture and Muslim ethics and says Muslims should disassociate themselves from Saudi Arabia[21] and Islamic terrorism. He also thinks that European Muslims "need to separate Islamic principles from their cultures of origin and anchor them in the cultural reality of Western Europe."[22] However, Ramadan says that "Europeans also must start considering Islam as a European religion."[23]

Maria Luisa Maniscalco

Maria Luisa Maniscalco, professor of Sociology at the University of Roma Tre, in her book "European Islam. Sociology of an encounter", considers that in a process of "Europeanisation" of Muslims and "Islamization" of Europe directions of change are diverse.[24] While family law, the status of women, religious freedom, social justice and criminal laws are still areas of high controversy within Islam, in Europe and elsewhere, and in comparison with European societies, attempts to Islamize modernity performed in European territory and in dialogue with Europe express creativity and innovation capacity. According to Maniscalco, when different segments of the Muslim world in Europe will propose themselves and will act as "active minorities", being able to take leadership and provide new impetus towards a dynamic and positive meeting, this will be significant for the future of Europe.[25]

Xavier Bougarel

Xavier Bougarel, research fellow at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique in the Ottoman and Turkish Studies unit, thinks that Balkan Muslims are playing an important role in the evolution of Islam in Europe towards a European Islam. With the possible EU enlargement towards the Balkans, about eight million Muslims would become EU citizens, doubling the number of Muslims in the EU-27 bloc.[26] Bougarel explores Balkan Islam which is often called "European Islam" because it resulted from indigenous and largely secularized in opposition to "a non-European Islam" that embody not only the predominantly Muslim countries but also the Muslim populations newly settled in Western Europe. Xavier Bougarel proposes to replace these culturalist visions by an accurate comparison taking into account the nuances of the realities of Islam in Western Europe and in the Balkans.[27]

Jocelyne Cesari

Jocelyne Cesari, Professor of Religion and Politics and Director of Research at Edward Cadbury Centre at University of Birmingham, as well as President of European Academy of Religion,[28] says that while Islam is perceived as colliding with European secular values "Islam is simply a religion."[23] According to Cesari, Muslims need to reveal the "genuine tolerant face of Islam, to show its diversity and reveal to the world that an intellectual such as Muhammad Abduh is the best example for a modern thinker."[23]

Cesari talks of the secularization of individual Islamic practices and of Islamic institutions, as well as the efforts Muslims are making to maintain the relevancy of Islamic legal systems and what she calls the "gender jihad".[29] She thinks that Islam should be merged into European culture and that Islamic culture should be added to Europe's educational curricula.[23] She has also held post as research associate at the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at Harvard University and director of Islamopedia Online.

Jørgen S. Nielsen

Jørgen S. Nielsen, professor of Islamic studies at the University of Copenhagen, says that "Europeanizing" Islam "requires changes in relations between the sexes, in relations between parents and children, significant changes in attitudes to people of other religions, and in attitudes toward the State."[30] Nielsen believes that this is happening. While only a minority of Muslims is assimilating completely with secular European culture, "the majority are sticking to their religion but divorcing it from the cultural tradition and redressing it in a new culture." Nielsen also argues that the emergence of a European Islam is not only linked to the Muslim communities in Europe, but also to structures inherited from European society and the State.[31]

Other approaches to integration

Robert S. Leiken

Robert S. Leiken says that both the multiculturalism and assimilation methods failed and that an integration policy still needs to be developed, something which will not happen overnight.[23]

European Commission proposal

Following the failed car bomb attacks in London and the failed Glasgow airport attack in June 2007, the European Commission started pooling ideas on how to tackle radical Islam and create a "European Islam", i.e. an Islam which is a more tolerant "European" branch of the faith.[32] EU home affairs commissioner Franco Frattini also sent out an 18-question survey asking EU member states how they address violent radicalisation, mainly related to an abusive interpretation of Islam.[clarification needed] In addition, Mr Frattini wants to pursue and further the idea of establishing a so-called "European Islam" or "Islam de l'Europe" – something floated by France's then interior minister Nicolas Sarkozy in 2006.[32]

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b AlSayyad, Nezar (2002). "Islam, Europe, and the Identity of the Changing Nation-State". In AlSayyad, Nezar; Castells, Manuel (eds.). Muslim Europe Or Euro-Islam: Politics, Culture, and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, co-published with the Center for Middle Eastern Studies (University of California, Berkeley). pp. 18–21. ISBN 978-0-7391-0338-8. LCCN 2001050240.
  2. ^ a b Popović, Alexandre; Rashid, Asma (Summer–Autumn 1997). "The Muslim Culture In The Balkans (16th–18th Centuries)". Islamic Studies. 36 (2/3, Special Issue: Islam In The Balkans). Islamic Research Institute (International Islamic University, Islamabad): 177–190. eISSN 2710-5326. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 23076193.
  3. ^ a b c Ismaili, Besa (2013). "Kosovo". In Nielsen, Jørgen S.; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet; Racius, Egdunas (eds.). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe. Vol. 5. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 369–381. doi:10.1163/9789004255869_025. ISBN 978-90-04-25586-9. ISSN 1877-1432.
  4. ^ Raudvere, Catharina (2019). "Between Religiosity, Cultural Heritage, and Politics: Sufi-Oriented Interests in Contemporary Bosnia and Herzegovina". In Malik, Jamal; Zarrabi-Zadeh, Saeed (eds.). Sufism East and West: Mystical Islam and Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Modern World. Studies on Sufism. Vol. 2. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 233–258. doi:10.1163/9789004393929_011. ISBN 978-90-04-39392-9. LCCN 2019004608. S2CID 199364516.
  5. ^ a b c Macnamara, Ronan (January 2013). "Slavic Muslims: The forgotten minority of Macedonia". Security and Human Rights. 23 (4). Leiden: Brill Publishers/Martinus Nijhoff Publishers on behalf of the Netherlands Helsinki Committee: 347–355. doi:10.1163/18750230-99900038. eISSN 1875-0230. ISSN 1874-7337.
  6. ^ a b c Cesari, Jocelyne, ed. (2014). "Part III: The Old European Land of Islam". The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 427–616. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199607976.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-960797-6. LCCN 2014936672. S2CID 153038977.
  7. ^ a b c Clayer, Nathalie (2004). "Les musulmans des Balkans Ou l'islam de "l'autre Europe"/The Balkans Muslims Or the Islam of the "Other Europe"". Religions, pouvoir et société: Europe centrale, Balkans, CEI. Le Courrier de Pays de l'Est (in French). 5 (1045). Paris: La Documentation française: 16–27. doi:10.3917/cpe.045.0016. ISSN 0590-0239 – via Cairn.info.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Bougarel, Xavier; Clayer, Nathalie (2013). Les musulmans de l'Europe du Sud-Est: Des Empires aux États balkaniques. Terres et gens d'islam (in French). Paris: IISMM – Karthala. pp. 1–20. ISBN 978-2-8111-0905-9 – via Cairn.info.
  9. ^ Kahl, Thede (2006). Mylonas, Harris (ed.). "The Islamization of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey". Nationalities Papers. 34 (1). Cambridge University Press: 71–90. doi:10.1080/00905990500504871. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 161615853.
  10. ^ a b Cesari, Jocelyne (2010). "Part 1, Overview: Muslims in Europe and the US – Securitization of Islam in Europe". In Cesari, Jocelyne (ed.). Muslims in the West After 9/11: Religion, Politics, and Law. Routledge Studies in Liberty and Security (1st ed.). London and New York: Routledge. pp. 9–27. ISBN 9780415776547.
  11. ^ Buturović, Amila (2009) [2006]. "Part V: Islamic Cultural Region – European Islam". In Juergensmeyer, Mark (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 437–446. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195137989.003.0043. ISBN 978-0-19-513798-9. LCCN 2006004402. S2CID 161373775.
  12. ^ Karić, Enes (2002). "Is 'Euro-Islam' a Myth, Challenge, or a Real Opportunity for Muslims and Europe?". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 22 (2). London: Taylor & Francis: 435–442. doi:10.1080/1360200022000027375. ISSN 1360-2004. S2CID 144393965.
  13. ^ a b Tibi, Bassam (1995). "Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam"". In Bistolfi, Robert; Zabbal, François (eds.). Islams d'Europe: Intégration ou Insertion Communautaire? (in French). Paris: Éditions de l'Aube. pp. 230–234. ISBN 978-2876782013.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Meer, Nasar (2014). "Euro-Islam". Key Concepts in Race and Ethnicity (3rd ed.). London and Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. pp. 43–46. ISBN 978-0-85702-868-6. LCCN 2013955942.
  15. ^ "Q&A: Islam and Europe – New York Times".
  16. ^ a b c d Tibi, Bassam (2010). "Euro-Islam: An Alternative to Islamization and Ethnicity of Fear". In Baran, Zeyno (ed.). The Other Muslims: Moderate and Secular. New York City: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 157–174. doi:10.1057/9780230106031_10. ISBN 978-0-230-62188-6. S2CID 148008368.
  17. ^ See Tibi's article "A Migration Story: From Muslim Immigrants to European "Citizens of the Heart?"" in: The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs Vol.31 (Winter 2007) 1: 191–210.
  18. ^ On the ethnicization of Islam in Europe see Tibi's chapter in Roland Hsu (Ed.), Ethnic Europe: Mobility, Identity, and Conflict in a Globalized World, Stanford University Press, 2010, pp. 127–156; also Bassam Tibi, "Ethnicity of Fear? Islamic Migration and the Ethnicization of Islam in Europe," in: Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2010, pp. 126–157.
  19. ^ "Islamologe Bassam Tibi: "Ich kapituliere"". Cicero (in German). Berlin. 26 May 2016. ISSN 1613-4826. Retrieved 21 January 2021. Der Islamologe und gebürtige Syrer Bassam Tibi sieht keine Chancen mehr für einen europäischen Islam. Im Magazin Cicero (Juni-Ausgabe) schreibt er, dass der „Kopftuch-Islam" über den „Euro-Islam" gesiegt habe: „Den Euro-Islam wird es nicht geben. Ich kapituliere." Sein Essay ist der erste Teil einer neuen Cicero-Serie mit dem Titel: „Gehört der Islam zu Deutschland?"
  20. ^ The origin of the term predates Ramadan's book. Bassam Tibi coined the term in his 1992 paper Les conditions d'une "Euro-Islam", published in Bistolfi, Robert; Zabbal, François, eds. (1995). Islams d'Europe: Intégration ou Insertion Communautaire? (in French). Paris: Éditions de l'Aube. pp. 230–234. ISBN 978-2876782013.
  21. ^ Ramadan, Tariq (June 2000). "Who speaks for Europe's Muslims?". mondediplo.com.
  22. ^ N. Le Quesne, "Trying to Bridge A Great Divide" in Time
  23. ^ a b c d e "Enemy within". Al Ahram Weekly. 2005. Archived from the original on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 11 July 2007.
  24. ^ Maria Luisa Maniscalco, Islam Europeo. Sociologia di un incontro, Milano, FrancoAngeli, 2014.
  25. ^ Antonelli, Francesco (19 February 2015). "La fede trovata nella cittadinanza in Il Manifesto, 20 febbraio 2015". ilmanifesto.info.
  26. ^ "European Policy Centre Website". Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  27. ^ Xavier Bougarel, Balkans. Les différentes facettes de l'islam, in P@ges Europe, La Documentation française DILA, 1° aprile 2014
  28. ^ "Professor Jocelyne Cesari – Department of Theology and Religion – University of Birmingham". www.birmingham.ac.uk. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  29. ^ Cesari, J. (21 February 2006). When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the United States. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 1403971463.
  30. ^ Peter Ford, "Europe's rising class of believers: Muslims", The Christian Science Monitor, 24 February 2005
  31. ^ Nielsen, Jørgen S. (1999). Towards a European Islam. Migration, Minorities, and Citizenship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9780230379626. ISBN 978-0-333-72374-6.
  32. ^ a b Renata Goldirova, "Brussels questions EU capitals over approach to Islam" in the EUobserver, 6 July 2007

Bibliography

Further reading
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