The kea (/ˈkiːə/KEE-ə; Māori:[kɛ.a]; Nestor notabilis) is a species of large parrot in the familyStrigopidae[3] that is endemic to the forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand.[4] About 48 cm (19 in) long, it is mostly olive-green, with brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. Its omnivorous diet consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects, but also includes carrion.[5] It was once killed for bounty due to concern by sheep-farmers that it attacked livestock, especially sheep.[6] The kea is now uncommon, and received absolute protection under the Wildlife Act in 1986.[7]
The kea nests in burrows or crevices among the roots of trees. Kea are known for their intelligence and curiosity, both vital to their survival in a harsh mountain environment. Kea can solve logical puzzles, such as pushing and pulling things in a certain order to get to food, and will work together to achieve a certain objective.[8] They have been filmed preparing and using tools.[9]
Taxonomy and naming
The kea was described by ornithologist John Gould in 1856, from two specimens shown to him by Walter Mantell, who obtained the birds in Murihiku.[10] Eight years earlier, some elderly Māori had told Mantell about the bird, and how it used to visit the coast in winter but had not been seen in recent times. Mantell subsequently investigated and obtained the birds.
The kea's Latin binomial specific epithet, notabilis, means "noteworthy".[11] The common name kea is from Māori, probably an onomatopoeic representation of their in-flight call – 'keee aaa'.[12] The word "kea" is both singular and plural.
The genusNestor contains four species: the New Zealand kākā (Nestor meridionalis), the kea (N. notabilis), the extinct Norfolk kākā (N. productus), and the extinct Chatham kākā (N. chathamensis). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kākā", dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago.[13][14] Their closest relative is the flightless kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus).[13][14][15][16] Together, they form the parrot superfamilyStrigopoidea, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation.[13][14][16][17]
Description
Juveniles have yellow eyerings and cere, an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs
Orange feathers can be seen under the wing during flight
The kea is a large parrot measuring 46 to 50 cm (18 to 20 in) in total length, with some specimens possibly reaching 55 cm (22 in).[18][19][20] Adult kea weigh between 750 and 1,000 g (1.65 and 2.20 lb), with males averaging 956 g (2.108 lb) and females averaging 779 g (1.717 lb). One source listed the mean adult weight as 922 g (2.033 lb)[21][22][23] It has mostly olive-green plumage with a grey beak having a long, narrow, curved upper beak. The adult has dark-brown irises, and the cere, eyerings, and legs are grey. It has orange feathers on the undersides of its wings. The feathers on the sides of its face are dark olive-brown, the ones on its back and rump are orange-red, and some of the outer wing feathers are dull blue. It has a short, broad, bluish-green tail with a black tip. Feather shafts project at the tip of the tail and the undersides of the inner tail feathers have yellow-orange transverse stripes.[24] The male is about 5% longer than the female, and the male's upper beak is 12–14% longer than the female's.[25] Juveniles generally resemble adults, but have yellow eyerings and cere, an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs.[24]
The kea ranges from lowland river valleys and coastal forests of the South Island's west coast up to alpine regions of the South Island such as Arthur's Pass and Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park. It is closely associated throughout its range with the southern beech (Nothofagus) forests in the alpine ridge.[27]
Apart from occasional vagrants, kea today are not found in the North Island. Subfossil kea bones have been found in sand dunes at Mataikona in the eastern Wairarapa, Poukawa near Hastings, and Waitomo, indicating that they ranged through lowland forest over much of the North Island until the arrival of Polynesian settlers about 750 years ago.[28] Kea subfossils are not restricted to alpine areas, being commonly found in lowland or coastal sites in the South Island.[29] The current distribution of kea reflects the effects of mammalian predators, including humans, which have driven them out of lowland forests into the mountains.[30]
Behaviour
Breeding
At least one observer has reported that the kea is polygynous, with one male attached to multiple females. The same source also noted that there was a surplus of females.[31]
Kea are social and live in groups of up to 13 birds.[32] Isolated individuals do badly in captivity, but respond well to seeing themselves in a mirror.[33]
In one study, nest sites occur at a density of one per 4.4 square kilometres (1.7 sq mi).[34] The breeding areas are most commonly in southern beech (Nothofagus) forests, located on steep mountainsides. Breeding at heights of 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) above sea level and higher, it is one of the few parrot species in the world to regularly spend time above the tree line. Nest sites are usually positioned on the ground underneath large beech trees, in rock crevices, or dug burrows between roots. They are accessed by tunnels leading back 1 to 6 metres (3.3 to 19.7 ft) into a larger chamber, which is furnished with lichens, moss, ferns, and rotting wood. The laying period starts in July and reaches into January.[35] Two to five white eggs are laid, with an incubation time of around 21 days, and a brooding period of 94 days.[36]
Mortality is high among young kea, with less than 40% surviving their first year.[37] The median lifespan of a wild subadult kea has been estimated at five years, based on the proportion of kea seen again in successive seasons in Arthur's Pass, and allowing for some emigration to surrounding areas. Around 10% of the local kea population were expected to be over 20 years of age.[38] The oldest known captive kea was 50 years old in 2008.[37]
Cognitive Abilities
Kea parrots have strong cognitive abilities. According to recent studies, Kea share the ability to have sense of impulsive control and planning forward. Kea can wait up to 160 seconds for a more preferred reward. In addition, Kea also use trial and error tactics and use observational leaning to solve difficult problems and when tasked with puzzles and locks. These abilities of decision-making are similar to primates and other intelligent bird species like the African grey parrot.[39][40]
Diet and feeding
An omnivore, the kea feeds on more than 40 plant species, beetle larvae, grasshoppers, land snails, other birds (including shearwater chicks), and mammals (including sheep, rabbits and mice).[8][32][41] It has been observed breaking open shearwater nests to feed on the chicks after hearing the chicks in their nests.[42] It enjoys the flesh and bone marrow from carcasses.[41] The kea has also taken advantage of human garbage and "gifts" of food.[43]
Tool use behavior has been observed in this species, wherein a bird named Bruce, who has a broken upper beak, wedged pebbles between his tongue and lower mandible and then utilized this arrangement to aid with his preening habits.[44]
Sheep
Sheep, suspected to have been killed by kea in July 1907
The controversy about whether the kea preys on sheep is long-running. Sheep suffering from unusual wounds on their sides or loins were noticed by the mid-1860s, within a decade of sheep farmers moving into the high country. Although some supposed the cause was a new disease, suspicion soon fell on the kea. James MacDonald, head shepherd at Wanaka Station, witnessed a kea attacking a sheep in 1868, and similar accounts were widespread.[5] Prominent members of the scientific community accepted that kea attacked sheep, with Alfred Wallace citing this as an example of behavioural change in his 1889 book Darwinism.[45]Thomas Potts noted that attacks were most frequent during winter and snow-bound sheep with two years growth in their fleece were the most vulnerable, while newly-shorn sheep in warm weather were rarely molested.[46]
Despite substantial anecdotal evidence of sheep attacks,[5][47] others remained unconvinced, especially in later years. For instance, in 1962, animal specialist J.R. Jackson concluded, while the bird may attack sick or injured sheep, especially if it mistook them for dead, it was not a significant predator.[48] In August 1992, however, its nocturnal assaults were captured on video,[8][49] proving that at least some kea will attack and feed on healthy sheep. The video confirmed what many scientists had long suspected: that the kea uses its powerful, curved beak and claws to rip through the layer of wool and eat the fat from the back of the animal. Though the bird does not directly kill the sheep, death can result from infections or accidents suffered by animals when trying to escape.
Since kea are now a protected species, their depredations are generally tolerated by sheep farmers, though why some kea attack sheep, and others do not, remains unclear. Various theories, including similarities with existing food sources, curiosity, entertainment, hunger, maggots as well as a progression from scavenging dead sheep and hides have all been put forward as to how the behaviour was first acquired.[47][49]Anecdotal evidence also suggests only particular birds have learned the behaviour, with identification and removal of those individuals being sufficient to control the problem.[49][30]
There are also anecdotal reports of kea attacking rabbits, dogs, and even horses.[47] There are also suggestions that kea used to feed on moa in a similar way.[49]
Relationship with humans
Kea damaging a parked carKea investigating tourists
Kea, which are social, have been found to have a level of high cognitive ability, with the capacity to solve complex tasks.[50][51] This curiosity and urge to explore and investigate makes this bird both a pest for residents and an attraction for tourists. In 2017 the kea was voted New Zealand Bird of the Year in a campaign to raise awareness about the country's endangered wildlife.[52]
Called "the clown of the mountains",[52][53] it will investigate backpacks, boots, skis, snowboards, and even cars, often causing damage or flying off with smaller items.[54] Kea have been kept as pets before being protected, but rarely, since they were difficult to capture and destructive when in captivity.
People commonly encounter wild kea at South Island ski areas, where they are attracted by the prospect of food scraps. Their curiosity leads them to peck and carry away unguarded items of clothing, or to pry apart rubber parts of cars – to the entertainment and annoyance of human observers. They are often described as "cheeky". A kea has even been reported to have made off with the passport of a tourist who was visiting Fiordland National Park.[55]
The Department of Conservation also suggested that the time savings resulting from a more calorie-rich diet will give kea more free time to investigate and hence damage things at campsites and car parks.[56]
The birds' naturally trusting behaviour around humans has also been indicated as a contributing factor in a number of recent incidents at popular tourist spots where kea have been purposely killed.[57][58][59]
Kea were eaten by Māori. They were believed by the Waitaha tribe to be kaitiaki (guardians).[60]
Cultural references
The kea featured on the reverse side of the New Zealand $10 note between 1967 and 1992, when it was replaced with the blue duck (whio).[61]
Kea are the protagonists in New Zealand author Philip Temple's novels Beak of the Moon (1981) and Dark of the Moon (1993), recounting respectively the first encounters of a group of kea with humans at the time of the colonisation of the South Island by Māori, and their life in present-day, human-dominated New Zealand. Sentient Kea also features as prominent characters in the Orson Scott Card novel The Last Shadow.
In the video game Dwarf Fortress, kea are one of many species of animals that will steal the player's items.[63]
Threats
Together with local councils and runholders, the New Zealand government paid a bounty for kea bills because the bird preyed upon livestock, mainly sheep.[47][64][30] It was intended that hunters would kill kea only on the farms and council areas that paid the bounty, but some hunted them in national parks and in Westland, where they were officially protected. More than 150,000 were killed in the hundred years before 1970, when the bounty was lifted.[65]
A study of kea numbers in Nelson Lakes National Park showed a substantial decline in the population between 1999 and 2009, caused primarily by predation of kea eggs and chicks.[66] Video cameras set up to monitor kea nests in South Westland showed that possums killed kea fledglings.[67]
Lead poisoning, mostly from the roofs of buildings/building materials, is also a significant cause of premature deaths among kea.[68][69] Research on lead toxicity in kea living at Aoraki / Mount Cook found that of 38 live kea tested all were found to have detectable blood lead levels, 26 considered dangerously high.[69] Additional analysis of 15 dead kea sent to Massey University for diagnostic pathology between 1991 and 1997 found 9 bodies to have lead blood levels consistent with causing death.[70] Research conducted by Victoria University in 2008 confirmed that the natural curiosity of kea which has enabled the species to adapt to its extreme environment, may increase its propensity to poisoning through ingestion of lead – i.e. the more investigative behaviours identified in a bird, the higher its blood lead levels were likely to be.[71]
The 1080 pesticide is used to control invasive pest mammals such as stoats and possums and has also been implicated in kea deaths. For example, seven kea were found dead following an aerial possum control operation using 1080, at Fox Glacier in July 2008[72] and a further seven had been found dead in August 2011, following a 1080 aerial possum control operation in Ōkārito Forest.[73] Traps are also considered a risk to kea. In September 2011, hidden cameras caught kea breaking into baited stoat traps in the Matukituki Valley. More than 75% of the traps had been sprung.[74]
Conservation
In the 1970s, the kea received partial protection after a census counted only 5,000 birds. The government agreed to investigate any reports of problem birds and have them removed from the land.[75] In 1986 it was given absolute protection under the Wildlife Act 1953.[76] Kea are also listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.[2]
Despite being classified as Nationally Endangered in the New Zealand Threat Classification System[77] and endangered in the IUCN Red List and protected by law, kea are still deliberately shot. For example, in the late 1990s, a Fox Glacier resident killed 33 kea in the glacier car park[59] and in 2008, two kea were shot in Arthur's Pass and stapled to a sign.[57]
Kea deaths due to traffic have prompted the NZ Transport Agency to install signs to help raise awareness, and to encourage people to slow down if necessary.[78] In Fiordland National Park, there have been concerns that kea are particularly at risk from road traffic at the entrance to the Homer Tunnel. Kea have been regularly observed on the roadway, moving amongst vehicles waiting to pass through the one-way tunnel. People feeding the birds was one cause of the problem. In 2017, a gym for kea was built near the Homer tunnel entrance, in an attempt to lure the birds away from the road.[79]
A citizen science project called the "Kea Database" was launched in 2017 that allows for the recording of kea observations to an online database. If the recorded kea are banded, it is possible to match observations with individual named birds, enabling the monitoring of the habits and behaviour of individual kea.[80]
The total kea population was estimated at between 1,000 and 5,000 individuals in 1986,[82] contrasting with another estimate of 15,000 birds in 1992.[38] The kea's widespread distribution at low density across inaccessible areas prevents accurate estimates.[75][83] Estimates published in 2017 suggest a population of between 3000 and 7000 individuals.[84]
^ abcGrant-Mackie, E.J.; J.A. Grant-Mackie; W.M. Boon; G.K. Chambers (2003). "Evolution of New Zealand Parrots". NZ Science Teacher. 103.
^Juniper, T., Parr, M. (1998) Parrots: A guide to parrots of the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (ISBN0-300-07453-0)
^ abDe Kloet, Rolf S.; De Kloet, Siwo R. (September 2005). "The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 36 (3): 706–21. Bibcode:2005MolPE..36..706D. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013. PMID16099384.
^Schweizer, M.; Seehausen O; Güntert M; Hertwig ST (2009). "The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (3): 984–94. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021. PMID19699808. S2CID1831016.
^Brehm, A. E. (1900). Brehm's Tierleben: Die Vögel. 1900 (Vol. 5). Bibliographisches Institut.
^Robertson, H., & Heather, B. (2001). Hand Guide to the Birds of New Zealand. Oxford University Press.
^Hutton, F. W. (1871). Catalogue of the Birds of New Zealand with Diagnoses of the Species (Vol. 4). J. Hughes, printer.
^CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN978-0-8493-4258-5.
^Elliot, G., & Kemp, J. (2004). Effect of hunting and predation on kea, and a method of monitoring kea populations. Results of kea research on the St. Arnaud Range. DOC Science Internal Series, 181, 1–17.
^Collar, N., E. de Juana, P. F. D. Boesman, and C. J. Sharpe (2020). Kea (Nestor notabilis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.
^Heather, Barrie; Robertson, Hugh (2015). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand.
^Robertson, CJR; Hyvonen, P; Fraser, M; Pickard, CR (2007). Atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand. Wellington: The Ornithological Society of New Zealand.
^Jackson, J.R. (1962). "Do kea attack sheep?"(PDF). Notornis. 10: 33–38. Archived from the original(PDF) on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
^ abcdTemple, Philip (1994). "Kea: the feisty parrot". New Zealand Geographic. No. 24. Auckland (published October–December 1994). Retrieved 13 January 2019.
^"Clever clown of the mountains". University of Vienna – Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Cognitive Biology. Archived from the original on 2 November 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
^ abDiamond, J., Bond, A. (1999) Kea. Bird of paradox. The evolution and behavior of a New Zealand Parrot. Berkeley; Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. (ISBN0-520-21339-4)
^"Wildlife Act 1953". New Zealand Legislation. Parliamentary Counsel Office. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
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