The first state to have a stable hold over the territory of what will be considered Lower Silesia was the short-lived Great Moravia in the 9th century. Afterwards, in the Middle Ages, Lower Silesia was part of Piast-ruled Poland. It was one of the leading regions of Poland, and its capital Wrocław was one of the main cities of the Polish Kingdom. Lower Silesia emerged as a distinctive region during the fragmentation of Poland in 1172, when the Duchies of Opole and Racibórz, considered Upper Silesia since, were formed of the eastern part of the Duchy of Silesia, and the remaining, western part was since considered Lower Silesia. During the Ostsiedlung, German settlers were invited to settle in the region, which until then had a Polish majority. As a result, the region became largely Germanised in the following centuries. Nonetheless, it remained a pioneering center of Polish culture, where the oldest Polish writing and first Polish print were created, and the first town rights were granted.
In the Late Middle Ages the region fell under the overlordship of the Bohemian Crown, but large parts remained under the rule of local Polish dukes of the Piast, Jagiellonian and Sobieski dynasties, some up to the 17th and 18th century. Briefly under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Hungary, it fell to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy in 1526.
Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk) and other historical regions of Poland against the background of modern administrative borders (names in Polish)Silesian coat of arms, as drawn c. 1890 by Hugo Gerard Ströhl
In 1742, Austria ceded nearly all of Lower Silesia to the Kingdom of Prussia in the Treaty of Berlin, except for the southern part of the Duchy of Neisse. Within the Prussian kingdom, the region became part of the Province of Silesia. In 1871, the Prussian-controlled portion of Lower Silesia was integrated into the German Empire. After World War I, Lower Silesia was divided, as small parts were reintegrated with Poland and Czechoslovakia, which both regained independence. In the interbellum, the Polish population of the region was persecuted in the German-controlled part of the region.
After Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, most of the region became once again part of Poland, while a smaller part west of the Oder-Neisse line became part of East Germany and Czech Lower Silesia (Jesenicko and Opavsko regions) remained as a part of Czechoslovakia. By 1949, almost the entire pre-war German population was expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement.[1] Poles displaced from the former Polish lands incorporated into the USSR settled in Lower Silesia after the war, as well as Polish settlers from other parts of Poland.
The region is known for an abundance of historic architecture of various styles, including many castles and palaces, well preserved or reconstructed old towns, numerous spa towns, and historic burial sites of Polish monarchs and consorts (in Wrocław, Legnica and Trzebnica).
Geography
Lower Silesia is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław.
The southern border of Lower Silesia is mapped by the mountain ridge of the Western and CentralSudetes, which since the High Middle Ages formed the border between Polish Silesia and the historic Bohemian region of the present-day Czech Republic. The Bóbr and Kwisa rivers are considered being the original western border with the Lusatias, however, the Silesian Duchy of Żagań reached up to the Neisse river, including two villages (Pechern and Neudorf) on the western shore, which became Silesian in 1413.
The tiny part of the former Duchy of Żagań on the western shore of the Neisse is today part of the Krauschwitz municipality in the Görlitz district of Saxony, the larger Upper Lusatian parts of Prussian Silesia ("Silesian Upper Lusatia") west of the Neisse comprised the town of Görlitz and the former district of Hoyerswerda, which today forms the northern part of the Saxon Görlitz and Bautzen districts as well as the southern part of the Oberspreewald-Lausitz district in Brandenburg. The southern part of the former Duchy of Nysa, which fell to Austrian Silesia in 1742, namely the Jeseník District and Heřmanovice, Mnichov and Železná, as well as parts of Vrbno pod Pradědem in the Bruntál District, today belongs to the Czech Republic.
The adjacent Silesian Lowland includes the Silesian Lowlands and the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands. These two lowlands are separated with each other by Dolina Kaczawy, and from the Sudetes by a steep morphological edge located along the Sudeten Marginal Fault, extended from Bolesławiec (the Northwest) to Złoty Stok (the Southeast). The southern part of the Lowland includes The Sudeten Foreland, consisting of quite low Wzgórze Strzegomskie, 232 m or 761 ft, Grupa Ślęży (Mount Ślęża, 718 m or 2,356 ft), and Wzgórza Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie (Gromnik Mountain, 392 m or 1,286 ft). Lower hills occur also in areas of Obniżenie Sudeckie, Świdnik, and Kotlina Dzierżoniowska. The eastern part of Silesian Lowland consists of the wide Silesian Lowlands, located along banks of the Oder River. The eastern part includes also Równina Wrocławska with its surrounding lands: Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. Dolina Dolnej Kaczawy (Kotlina Legnicka) separates the Silesian Lowlands from the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands, which includes Wysoczyzna Lubińsko-Chocianowska, Dolina Szprotawy, and wide areas of Bory Dolnośląskie, located to the north from the Bolesławiec-Zgorzelec road. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km (120 mi) long and over 150 m (490 ft) high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, Kobyla Mountain, 284 m (932 ft). The range of hills includes Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka, is located in the northern part, within the hills.
The region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements (sand, gravel, clay) that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements. Slopes of the hills over 180–200 m (590–660 ft) are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with, the Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. The later form of the economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes. Not only fertile grounds, but also the mild climate is conductive to the development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The average temperature of the hottest month (July) is 19 °C (66 °F), and −0.5 °C (31.1 °F) of the coldest month (January). The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres (20–24 inches), with its maximum in July and minimum in February. The snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest.
Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of the area. The greatest rivers are Nysa Kłodzka, which is the source of drinking water for Wrocław (the water is drawn by special channel); Stobrawa, Oława, Ślęza, Bystrzyca with its tributaries—Strzegomka and Piława; Widawa, Średzka Woda, Kaczawa with Nysa Szalona and Czarna Woda. There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz. The other quite large rivers, Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse, flow into the Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, which is conductive to the proper water economy. The characteristic feature of the landscape of the lowland is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica is the only place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived, but the majority of them is already disappearing. The largest one is Jezioro Kunickie (95 hectares or 230 acres), Jezioro Koskowickie (50 ha or 120 acres), Jezioro Jaśkowickie (24 ha or 59 acres) and Tatarak (19.5 ha or 48 acres). In contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in the Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages. Their total area amounts around 80 square kilometres (31 square miles), and the largest ponds (Stary Staw, Łosiowy Staw, Staw Niezgoda, Staw Mewi Duży, and Grabownica) come to 200–300 ha (490–740 acres).
The primeval flora has been transformed significantly as a result of deforestation and cultivation. The largest forest complexes are Bory Dolnośląskie (3,150 km2 or 1,220 sq mi), Bory Stobrawskie in Stobrawa and Widawa areas, and smaller fragments of forests in Barycz and Oder River valleys. These forests are kind of multi-species deciduous forests, occurring in fertile grounds. The Oder River valley is reach in groups of mixed forests (beech, oak, hornbeam, sycamore maple, and pine). These forests, with protected status, are: Zwierzyniec, Kanigóra near Oława, Dublany, Kępa Opatowicka near Wrocław, Zabór near Przedmoście, and Lubiąż. The other forest areas are The Natural Park in Orsk, the areas of Jodłowice, Wzgórze Joanny near Milicz, and Gola near Twardogóra. Such types of forest like those which are the mainstay for wild game or nurseries, are inaccessible because of permanent fire hazard. Territories partly accessible (marked specially) are located in areas of Góra Śląska, Oborniki Śląskie, Wołowa, in the Oder River valley, and in Wzgórza Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie.
The flora of Lower Silesia is specific and different for each zone. From the bottoms to the top, plants form groups that are arranged in wide or narrow belts, called floral zones. Subsequently, these zones are divided into narrower belts, called vegetation belts.
The zone of mountain forest is divided into two belts: subalpine and lower subalpine forest. Above, there is a forestless zone divided into the subalpine belt with dwarf pine, and the alpine belt without shrubs. This vegetation is glacial; the former vegetation—from the Tertiary—was destroyed by the climate of the Ice Age. Along with glaciation from the North, some tundra plants appeared, for example downy willow (Salix lapponum) and cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus). The flora of Lower Silesia is strongly influenced by geological and climatic history. The vegetation is formed by species deriving from various geographic regions. Particular regions are represented by:
Lower subalpine forest (Polish: Regiel Dolny), 450–1,000 m (1,480–3,280 ft), is characterized by deciduous or mixed forest. The fragments of forests similar to natural complexes of pine-fir-beech with admixture of larch, sycamore maple and lime occur near the Szklarski waterfall, in the Jagniątkowski complex, and Chojnik Mountain. Particular species of trees have different climatic requirements. The lowest parts are covered with oak and ash, up to 500 m (1,600 ft). On the level of 500–600 m (2,000 ft) occurs pine; in the higher parts, up to 800 m (2,600 ft), there occurs European larch; and above 800 m, fir and beech.
Pine forests are rich in spruces, which are permanently weakened by atmospheric factors. Frayed roots are easily infected by harmful fungus and insects. The most damaging is honey mushroom, with edible specimen, which grows in pulp, between the bark and timber, causing the death of tree. The other damaging fungus is bracket fungus, which destroys roots and trunks from the inside. The honey mushroom devastates the tree within a few months, and the bracket fungus, within a few years, as a result of mechanic changes in wood structure.
At the close of the Ice Age, the first man appeared at the Silesian Lowland. In the Mesolithic (7,000 years ago), the first nomadic people settled in Lower Silesia, living in caves and primitive chalets. They were collectors, hunters, and fishers, and used weapons and other tools made of stone and wood. In the Upper Paleolithic, the oldest human remains of the nomadic people, which were 40,000 years old, were found in a tomb in Tyniec on the river Ślęża.
In the Neolithic (4000–1700 BC), began the process of transformation into a settled way of life. The first rural settlements were made, as people began to farm and breed animals. Mining, pottery, and weaving are dated to this period. Serpentinite quarries came into existence, of which Silesian hatchets were made, and near Jordanów Śląski, people extracted nephrite that was transformed into diverse tools. In the Bronze Age (1700–1500 BC), the evolution of different cultures developed to the existence of Unetice culture that affected the existence of Trzciniec culture. In the next periods since c. 750 BC, it encompasses all of Europe.
Early history
In the La Tène culture period, Lower Silesia was inhabited by the Celts, who had their main place of cult on the Mount Ślęża. Their stony statues situated on and around this hill were later worshipped by the Slavic tribes that came here around the sixth century AD. Magna Germania (second century) records that between the Celtic and the Slavic period, Lower Silesia was inhabited by a number of Germanic tribes. Among them, are the Vandals, the Lugii, and the Silingi, who might have given the Silesia region its name, though it is unclear and thus disputed. With the Germanic tribes leaving westward during the Migration Period, a number of new peoples arrived in Silesia from Sarmatia, Asia Minor, and the Asian steppes from the beginning of the sixth century.
Meanwhile, the West Slavic Polans had established the first duchy under the Piast dynasty in the adjacent Greater Polish lands in the north. About 990 Silesia was conquered and incorporated into the first Polish state by the Piast duke Mieszko I, who had gained the support of Emperor Otto II against the Bohemian duke Boleslaus II.
In 1000 his son and successor Bolesław I Chrobry founded the Diocese of Wrocław, which, together with the Bishoprics of Kraków and Kołobrzeg, was placed under the Archbishopric of Gniezno in Greater Poland, founded by Emperor Otto III at the Congress of Gniezno in the same year. The ecclesial suzerainty of Gniezno over Wrocław lasted until 1821. After a temporary shift to Bohemia in the first half of the 11th century, Lower Silesia continued to be an integral part of the Polish state until the end of its fragmentation period when all Polish claims on this land were finally renounced in favor of the Bohemian kingdom in 1348.
The oldest known Polish written sentence in the Book of Henryków
Also a leading region of medieval Poland. The first-ever granting of town privileges in Polish history happened there, when Złotoryja was granted such rights in 1211 by Henry the Bearded. Medieval municipal rights modeled after Lwówek Śląski and Środa Śląska, both established by Henry the Bearded, became the basis of municipal form of government for several cities and towns in Poland, and two of five local Polish variants of medieval town rights. In the 13th century the Book of Henryków, a chronicle containing the oldest known text in Polish, was created in the region. In the Middle Ages, gold (Polish: złoto) and silver (Polish: srebro) were mined in the region, which is reflected in the names of the former mining towns of Złotoryja, Złoty Stok and Srebrna Góra. The city of Bolesławiec is a major center of pottery production since the Middle Ages, which the tradition of production of Bolesławiec pottery, also referred to as Polish pottery, cultivated to this day.
The Duchy of Silesia was first split into lower and upper parts in 1172 during the period of Poland's feudal fragmentation, when the land was divided between two sons of former High Duke Władysław II. The elder Bolesław the Tall ruled over Lower Silesia with his capital in Wrocław, and younger Mieszko Tanglefoot ruled over Upper Silesia with his capital at first in Racibórz, from 1202 in Opole. Later Silesia was divided into as many as 17 duchies. Main duchies of Lower Silesia:
Map of the Prussian Province of Silesia, with Lower Silesian administrative regions (Regierungsbezirke) of Liegnitz and Breslau ("Middle Silesia")
Most of Lower Silesia, except for the southern part of the Duchy of Nysa, became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after the First Silesian War by the 1742 Treaty of Breslau. In 1813, several battles of the War of the Sixth Coalition were fought in the region, including the Battle of the Katzbach. In 1815, it became part of the Prussian Silesia Province, which was divided into the three Lower Silesian administrative regions (Regierungsbezirke) of Liegnitz, Breslau and Reichenbach [de], and Upper Silesian Oppeln (including the Lower Silesian districts of Neisse and Grottkau). Reichenbach, which covered the southern part of Lower Silesia, was dissolved and its territories split between Liegnitz and Breslau in 1820; Breslau, which thereafter covered the central part of Silesia is sometimes also referred to as Middle Silesia. The western Liegnitz region was enlarged by the incorporation of the Upper LusatianLandkreise (districts) of Lauban [de] (Lubań), Görlitz [de], Rothenburg and, after 1825, Hoyerswerda [de], all seized from the Kingdom of Saxony after the Napoleonic Wars, as well as some small areas transferred from Crossen (Rothenburg an der Oder, Polnisch Nettkow, Drehnow); the exclave of Schwiebus in the north, as well as few other small exclaves in the west, were transferred to Brandenburg Province. The formerly Bohemian County of Kladsko, which had been annexed along with Silesia in 1742, was attached to the Reichenbach region in 1818, becoming part of the central Breslau region upon Reichenbach's dissolution in 1820.
The Polish secret resistance movement was active in the region in the 19th century. On 5 May 1848, a convention of Polish activists from the Prussian and Austrian partitions of Poland was held in Wrocław.[7] Wrocław was the seat of a Polish uprising committee before and during the January Uprising of 1863–1864 in the Russian Partition of Poland.[8] Local Poles took part in Polish national mourning after the Russian massacre of Polish protesters in Warsaw in February 1861, and also organized several patriotic Polish church services throughout 1861.[9] Secret Polish correspondence, weapons, gunpowder and insurgents were transported through the region.[10] In June 1863 Wrocław was officially confirmed as the seat of secret Polish insurgent authorities.[11] The Prussian police arrested a number of members of the Polish insurgent movement.[12]
After the war, the bulk of Lower Silesia remained within Germany, the Bohemian part was included within Czechoslovakia, and a small part with Rychtal was reintegrated with Poland, which just regained independence. The German part was re-organized into the Province of Lower Silesia of the Free State of Prussia consisting of the Breslau and Liegnitz regions. In the interwar period, there were multiple instances of anti-Polish violence in the German part, and already in 1920 a Polish consulate in Wrocław was attacked and demolished by German nationalists.[14] In the 1930s Poles and Jews were increasingly persecuted in the German-controlled part of the region. Many place names were Germanized in order to erase traces of Polish origin, even streets, squares, buildings and enterprises with the name Piast were forced to change their names (including the Piast castles in Brzeg and Wołów).[15]
In September 1939, at the start of World War II, Germany invaded and occupied the Polish part of the region. Already in 1939, the Germans carried out the first expulsions of Poles, and some died during their deportation to the more-eastern part of German-occupied Poland.[16]
In the final stages of the war it was the site of several death marches perpetrated by Nazi Germany.
In view of Polish claims to the area, a memorandum prepared by the United States Department of State in May 1945 recommended that the area stay with Germany because there was "no historic or ethnic justification" for granting this land to Poland.[20]
However, according to Soviet insistence at the Potsdam Agreement, in which the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland, Lower Silesia went to the Republic of Poland. These border shifts were agreed on pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place.[21] Germany retained the small portion of the former Prussian Province of Lower Silesia to the west of the Oder-Neisse line.
From 1945 to 1975 Lower Silesia was administered within the Wrocław Voivodeship. As a result of the Local Government Reorganisation Act (1975), Poland's administration was reorganized into 49 voivodeships, four of them in Lower Silesia: Jelenia Góra, Legnica, Wałbrzych, and Wrocław Voivodeships (1975–1998). As a result of the Local Government Reorganisation Act of 1998, these four provinces were joined into the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (effective 1 January 1999), whose capital is Wrocław.
Following the Korean War, in 1953–1959, Poland admitted 1,000 North Korean orphans in the region.[22]
At the close of the classical period the region was inhabited by Germanic Tribes, who during the Migration Period moved westward to the lands of modern Germany and France and were replaced in Lower Silesia by Lechitic tribes. Centuries later, German settlers came to Lower Silesia during the Late Middle Ages,[23] attracted by newly founded towns to develop the region. Over time, the autochthonous Polish population became partly Germanised and took up the German language as well, however, notable Polish communities survived, especially in northern Lower Silesia, and in larger cities. In year 1819, the Breslau Regency had 833,253 inhabitants, the majority of whom—755,553 (90%)—were German-speakers; with a Polish-speaking minority numbering 66,500 (8%); as well as 3,900 Czechs (1%) and 7,300 Jews (1%).[24] U.S. Immigration Commission in 1911 classified Polish-speaking Silesians as ethnic Poles.[25] After World War II, German inhabitants that had not fled the area due to the war, were expelled in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, and the region was resettled by Poles from former eastern Poland, which was annexed by the Soviet Union, as well as from other regions, making Polish minority majority again. In 1948–1954 Greeks and Macedonians, refugees of the Greek Civil War, came to Lower Silesia.[26] They were temporarily admitted in five towns and villages in the region and afterwards finally settled in various cities and counties, although in the next decades some returned to Greece, and some emigrated to other countries.[27] The largest Greek-Macedonian communities were located in Zgorzelec, Wrocław, Świdnica and Wałbrzych.[28]
Eastern parts of Upper Lusatia also formed part of Silesia in the early 14th century, as part of the Duchy of Jawor of fragmented Poland,[29] and again from 1815 to 1945, when the area was annexed from Saxony by Prussia and included within the Province of Silesia and later of Lower Silesia. During this time Silesian culture and the Silesian German dialect spread into this region with its centre Görlitz. The expulsion of the Germans from the east of the Oder-Neisse line led to an additional settlement of German Silesians in this region.
Due to these facts, some of the inhabitants of this region still consider themselves Silesian and cultivate Silesian customs. One of their special privileges is the right to use the Lower Silesian flag and coat of arms which is guaranteed to them by the Saxon Constitution of 1992. The Evangelical Church of Silesia in Upper Lusatia, meanwhile, merged with the one of Berlin and Brandenburg to form the Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia.
Towns
The main cities within the former province of Lower Silesia west of the Oder-Neisse line are (Upper Sorbian names in italics):
The main Lusatian cities within the former Duchy of Jawor and province of Lower Silesia east of Lusatian Neisse, now within Lower Silesian Voivodship are:
Baroque Krzeszów Abbey, which hosts the Icon of Our Lady of Grace, the oldest Marian icon in Poland and one of the oldest in Europe; one of the burial sites of the Piast dynasty
There are various museums, including the major National Museum in Wrocław with the branch Racławice Panorama Museum, and the Archdiocese Museum in Wrocław, which contains the Book of Henryków. Wrocław also hosts the Post and Telecommunications Museum, Poland's chief museum dedicated to postal history. The Regional Museum in Środa Śląska holds the Środa Treasure, containing medieval gold and silver coins, jewellery and royal regalia, considered one of the most precious archaeological findings of 20th-century Europe. The Ossolineum in Wrocław is a National Institute and Library of great importance, and the Pan Tadeusz Museum, containing the manuscript of the Polish national epos, Pan Tadeusz by Adam Mickiewicz, serves as its branch. Bolesławiec, center of pottery production since the Middle Ages, hosts the Museum of Ceramics. The former gold mines in Złoty Stok and Złotoryja, tin and cobalt mine in Krobica, coal mine in Nowa Ruda and uranium ore mine in Kowary are available for tourists.
There is a rich variety of breads, pastries and cakes, and additionally traditional local types of gingerbread are baked in Oleśnica, Przemków and Zielona Góra.
Lower Silesia is one of the wine growing regions of Poland, with one of the leading centers of Polish wine production being Zielona Góra. Other recognized traditional beverages include the Karkonoski Liqueur from the Giant Mountains, Trzebnicki Cider from the Trzebnickie Hills, Jarzębiak, a Polish fruit vodka made from rowan berries and other fruit ingredients, produced in Zielona Góra, and beer from Lwówek Śląski and Zielona Góra.
The village of Gościęcice has one of the largest sweet chestnut crops in Poland.[33] Their cultivation dates back to the Middle Ages, when local Catholic monks used these chestnuts for medical purposes.[33]
^Demshuk, Andrew (2012). The Lost German East: Forced Migration and the Politics of Memory, 1945–1970. Cambridge University Press. p. 53. The most common statistic has been around 12 million Germans, more than one-quarter of them from Silesia. Regardless of the precise numbers, the scale is certain. In Lower Silesia, virtually the entire pre-war population was gone by 1949, and much of the architectural and artistic heritage had been damaged. ... Taking these facts into account, the border and population shifts of 1945–1949 represent the most dramatic caesura in Silesia's history.
^Paulitz, Johann Gottlob. Chronik der Stadt Senftenberg und der zum ehemaligen Amte Senftenberg gehörigen Ortschaften (in German). Dresden. p. 67.
^Bogusławski, Wilhelm (1861). Rys dziejów serbo-łużyckich (in Polish). Petersburg. p. 142.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Rieck, Gisela (2014). "Herzog Heinrich von Jauer herrscht über die östliche Oberlausitz". Ora et labora (in German). No. 49. Ostritz: Freundeskreis der Abtei St. Marienthal. p. 17.
^Szczegóła, Hieronim (1968). Kasper Elyan z Głogowa, pierwszy polski drukarz (in Polish). Zielona Góra: Muzeum Ziemi Lubuskiej. pp. 4, 6.
^Hahn, Wiktor (1948). "Juliusz Słowacki w 1848 r.". Sobótka (in Polish). III (I). Wrocław: 92.
^Pater, Mieczysław (1963). "Wrocławskie echa powstania styczniowego". Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka (in Polish). XVIII (4). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich: 405.
^Kujat, Janusz Adam (2000). "Pieniądz zastępczy w obozach jenieckich na terenie rejencji wrocławskiej w czasie I i II wojny światowej". Łambinowicki rocznik muzealny (in Polish). 23. Opole: 12–13. ISSN0137-5199.
^Fiedor, Karol (1981). "Usuwanie na Śląsku w czasach Trzeciej Rzeszy nazw miejscowości i określeń ze słowem "Piast"". Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka (in Polish). XXXVI (1). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk: 184–185. ISSN0037-7511.
^Wardzyńska, Maria (2017). Wysiedlenia ludności polskiej z okupowanych ziem polskich włączonych do III Rzeszy w latach 1939-1945 (in Polish). Warszawa: IPN. pp. 183–184. ISBN978-83-8098-174-4.
^Sebastian Siebel-Achenbach (2006). Niederschlesien 1942 bis 1949: alliierte Diplomatie und Nachkriegswirklichheit (in German). Bergstadtverlag Wilhelm Gottlieb Korn. p. 101.
^Sołtysik, Łukasz (2009). "Dzieci i młodzież północnokoreańska w Polsce w latach 1953–1954 w świetle wybranych dokumentów". Rocznik Jeleniogórski (in Polish). Vol. XLI. Jelenia Góra. p. 196. ISSN0080-3480.
^Dillingham, William Paul; Folkmar, Daniel; Folkmar, Elnora (1911). Dictionary of Races or Peoples. United States. Immigration Commission (1907–1910). Washington, D.C.: Washington, Government Printing Office. pp. 104–105.
^Wojecki, Mieczysław (1980). "Ludność grecko-macedońska na Dolnym Śląsku". Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka (in Polish). XXXV (1). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk: 84–85. ISSN0037-7511.
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Roberto Pedro Echarte Ministro de Obras y Servicios Públicos de la Nación 26 de mayo de 1989-8 de julio de 1989Presidente Raúl AlfonsínPredecesor Rodolfo TerragnoSucesor Roberto José Dromi Secretario de Energía de la Nación Argentina marzo de 1988-26 de mayo de 1989Presidente Raúl AlfonsínPredecesor Jorge Edgardo LapeñaSucesor Raúl Antonio Olocco Información personalNacimiento 27 de diciembre de 1927Buenos Aires, ArgentinaFallecimiento 14 de agosto de 2015 (87 años)Bue...
Public school in Bowmanville, Ontario, CanadaBowmanville High SchoolBowmanville High School, in 2019.Address49 Liberty Street NorthBowmanville, Ontario, L1C 2L8CanadaCoordinates43°54′54″N 78°40′48″W / 43.914976°N 78.680075°W / 43.914976; -78.680075InformationTypePublicMottoNon Quantum Sed QualeEstablished1971School districtKawartha Pine Ridge District School BoardSuperintendentJamila MalihaPrincipalDavid BooneGrades9-12Enrollment945[1] (2019/20...
Rugby playerWaisea NayacalevuNayacalevu representing Stade Français during the Top 14Full nameWaisea Nayacalevu VuidravuwaluDate of birth (1990-06-26) 26 June 1990 (age 33)Place of birthNavua, FijiHeight1.93 m (6 ft 4 in)Weight105 kg (231 lb; 16 st 7 lb)SchoolLomary Secondary SchoolRugby union careerPosition(s) Centre, WingCurrent team ToulonSenior careerYears Team Apps (Points)2012–2022 Stade Français 200 (410)2022– Toulon 20 (35) Correct as...
زفيوزدنيي الإحداثيات 56°44′45″N 106°30′46″E / 56.745833333333°N 106.51277777778°E / 56.745833333333; 106.51277777778 تاريخ التأسيس 1974 تقسيم إداري البلد روسيا[2] الاتحاد السوفيتي[1] عدد السكان عدد السكان 817 (1 يناير 2018)[3] معلومات أخرى منطقة زمنية ت ع م+08:00 666762 ...
كوش (بالأرمنية: Կոշ) تقسيم إداري البلد أرمينيا[1] المقاطعة آراغاتسوتن خصائص جغرافية إحداثيات 40°18′09″N 44°09′25″E / 40.3025°N 44.156944°E / 40.3025; 44.156944 الارتفاع 1250 متر السكان التعداد السكاني 3249 نسمة (إحصاء 2012) معلومات أخرى التوقيت ت ع م+04:00 اللغة الرسمية �...
1980 novel by Douglas Adams This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary. Please help improve the article by adding more real-world context. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Restaurant at the End of the Universe Cover of the first editionAuthorDouglas AdamsCountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishSeriesHitchhiker's GuideGenreComic science fictionPublisherPan BooksPublication dateOctober 1980 (UK) January 1981 (US)Media typePrint (hardback &...
The Chelsea Murders First editionAuthorLionel DavidsonCover artistD.G. Rossetti The Blessed Damozel, 1878CountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishGenreThrillerPublisherJonathan CapePublication date1978Media typePrint (Hardcover & Paperback)Pages237 ppISBN0-14-005136-8OCLC59018354 The Chelsea Murders (known in the USA as Murder Games) is a thriller by Lionel Davidson published in 1978. The book won the Crime Writers' Association's Gold Dagger Award. Plot summary Someone is killing res...
Este artigo cita fontes, mas que não cobrem todo o conteúdo. Ajude a inserir referências. Conteúdo não verificável pode ser removido.—Encontre fontes: ABW • CAPES • Google (N • L • A) (Dezembro de 2012) HISTORIA CALAMITATUM Autor(es) Abelardo Idioma latim Lançamento 1132 HISTORIA CALAMITATUM ou ABÆLARDI AD AMICUM SUUM CONSOLATORIA, em português sendo traduzida como História das Minhas Calamidades, é uma autobiografia...
Konsonan geser langit-langit bersuaraʝNomor IPA139Pengkodean karakterEntitas (desimal)ʝUnikode (heks)U+029DX-SAMPAj\KirshenbaumC<vcd>Braille Gambar Sampel suaranoicon sumber · bantuan Konsonan desis langit-langit bersuara adalah jenis dari suara konsonan langit-langit yang digunakan dalam berbagai bahasa. Simbol IPAnya adalah ⟨ʝ⟩. Dalam bahasa Indonesia tidak ada huruf yang mewakili [ʝ]. Huruf tersebut berbunyi seperti mengucapkan huruf gh yang diartikulasi...
SMA Al Falah Ketintang SurabayaInformasiDidirikan2001JenisSwasta berbasis IslamAkreditasiAKepala Sekolah Ir. H. Rooswandi Hidayat, M. Pd (2001-2016) H. Akhyar Syukarti, M. Pd (2018-2020) Indah Rahmawati, M. Pd (2016-2018) (2020-sekarang) Jurusan atau peminatanIPA dan IPSRentang kelasX IPA-X IPS-XI IPA-XI IPS-XII IPA-XII IPSKurikulumKurikulum 2013 dan sistem Full Day SchoolJumlah siswakurang lebih 200 siswa (20-30 siswa per kelas)AlamatLokasiJalan Ketintang Madya No. 81, Ketintang, G...
Red Hill SyeniteStratigraphic range: Early Jurassic, ~199–197 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ LithologyPrimarySyeniteOtherfeldspathoid, granite, feldsparLocationRegionWhite Mountains of New HampshireCountryUnited StatesLocation of the Red Hill Syenite in New Hampshire, and the geologic units of the Red Hill Syenite. Adapted from File:NHMap-doton-Concord.png and USGS geologic map of New Hampshire Red Hill Syenite hand sample The Red Hill Syenite (Red Hill Syenitic Complex, ...
For other people named John Coffee, see John Coffee (disambiguation). John CoffeeBornJune 2, 1772Prince Edward County, VirginiaDiedJuly 7, 1833 (aged 61)Florence, AlabamaAllegiance United StatesService/branchMilitiaRank Brigadier generalBattles/wars Creek War Battle of Tallushatchee Battle of Talladega Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek Battle of Horseshoe Bend War of 1812 Battle of New Orleans Spouse(s)Mary Donelson John R. Coffee (June 2, 1772 – July 7, 1833) was an American pl...
1948 film The Tragic DolmenDirected byLéon MathotWritten byLéopold GomezProduced byLéopold GomezStarringAndré Alerme Germaine Rouer Paulette DubostCinematographyCharles BauerEdited byMarguerite BeaugéMusic byHenri VerdunProductioncompanySociété Africaine CinématographiqueDistributed byDisCinaRelease date21 July 1948Running time100 minutesCountryFranceLanguageFrench The Tragic Dolmen (French: Le dolmen tragique) is a 1948 French mystery drama film directed by Léon Mathot and starring ...
Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Toronto (disambiguasi). TorontoKotaTorontoCity of TorontoDari kiri atas: Pusat kota Toronto menunjukkan Gedung CN dan Distrik Keuangan dari Pulau Toronto, Balai kota, Gedung Legislatif Ontario, Casa Loma, Prince Edward Viaduct, dan Scarborough Bluffs BenderaLambang kebesaranJulukan: T.O., T-Dot, Hogtown, The Queen City, Toronto the Good, The City Within a ParkMotto: Diversity Our StrengthLokasi Toronto dan wilayah metropolitan di provinsi OntarioNegara...
Brazilian footballer Heleno de Freitas Heleno de Freitas in BotafogoPersonal informationDate of birth (1920-02-12)12 February 1920Place of birth São João Nepomuceno, BrazilDate of death 8 November 1959(1959-11-08) (aged 39)Place of death Barbacena, BrazilHeight 1.82 m (6 ft 0 in)Position(s) ForwardYouth career1927–1931 Mangueira1931–1935 Madureira1935–1936 Botafogo1936–1939 FluminenseSenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)1939–1948 Botafogo 235 (209)1948 Boca Junio...
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