The second of two main surveys of the Hundred Rolls, an English census seen as a follow-up to the Domesday Book (completed in 1086), is finished; it began in 1279.
Spring – Siege of Berat: A Byzantine relief force under Michael Tarchaneiotes arrives at the strategically important citadel of Berat. Tarchaneiotes avoids a confrontation with the Angevines and relies on ambushes and raids instead. He manages to capture the Angevin commander, Hugh of Sully, a few of Sully's guards escape and reach their camp – where they report his capture. Panic spreads among the Angevin troops at this news and they begin to flee towards Avlon. The Byzantines take advantage of their disordered flight and attacks, joined by the troops in the besieged citadel. Tarchaneiotes takes an enormous booty, a small remnant of the Angevin army manages to cross the Vjosa River and reach the safety of Kanina.[10]
October 18 – Emperor Michael VIII (Palaiologos) is excommunicated by Pope Martin IV without any warning or provocation. Martin authorizes Charles I, king of Sicily, to make a Crusade against Michael, who has re-established his rule in Constantinople. Charles prepares an expedition in Sicily and assembles a fleet of 100 ships, and 300 more in Naples, Provence, and the Greek territories, which carry some 8,000 cavalrymen.[11]
Europe
June – Castilian forces led King Alfonso X (the Wise) and accompanied by his sons, the Infantes Sancho, Peter and John, invade the lowlands of Granada. Sultan Muhammad II sends a Moorish army, supported by many archers and cavalry, to repel them. Alfonso defeats the Moors in a battle near Granada's walls on June 25, but after the failure of the negotiations that follow, he leaves Granada.[12]
September – Two Mongol armies (some 50,000 men) advance into Syria. One, is commanded by Abaqa Khan – who attacks the Mamluk fortresses along the Euphrates frontier. The second one, led by his brother Möngke Temür makes contact with Leo III, king of Cilician Armenia, and then marches down through Aintab and Aleppo into the Orontes valley. Where he is joined by knights of the Hospitaller Order and some French mercenaries. Meanwhile, Sultan Qalawun assembles his Mamluk forces at Damascus.[14]
October 29 – Battle of Homs: In a pitched battle, Mamluk forces (some 30,000 men) led by Qalawun destroy the Mongol center, Möngke Temür is wounded and flees. He orders a retreat, followed by a disorganized army. The Armenian-Georgian auxiliaries under Leo III fight their way back northwards. The Mongol army recrosses the Euphrates without losses, the river remains the frontier between the Mongols and the Mamluk Sultanate.[15]
Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire, becomes bey of the Söğüt tribe in central Anatolia after the death of his father, Ertuğrul Ghazi. Osman's accession to power is not peaceful, as he has to fight his relatives before he gets hold of the clan's leadership. One of Osman's major rivals is his uncle Dündar Bey, who rebels against him.[16]
Asia
August 15 – Battle of Kōan (or Second Battle of Hakata Bay): A second Mongol invasion of Japan is foiled, as a large typhoon – famously called a kamikaze, or divine wind – destroys much of the combined Mongol and Chinese fleet and forces, numbering over 140,000 men and 4,000 ships. Later, Kublai Khan begins to gather forces to prepare for a third invasion attempt, but is distracted by events in Southeast and Central Asia.[17]
Kublai Khan orders the burning of sacred Taoist texts, resulting in the reduction in number of volumes of the Daozang (Taoist Canon) from 4,565 to 1,120.
March – Welsh forces under Prince Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, attack and take control of Hawarden Castle. The garrison is massacred and Constable Roger de Clifford is taken prisoner. Llywelyn who has sworn fealty to King Edward I (Longshanks), joins Dafydd in his revolt against the English. Their actions lead to the final English conquest of Wales, by Edward.
March 30 – War of the Sicilian Vespers: A group of Sicilian conspirators begins an uprising against the rule of King Charles I; over the next six weeks, thousands of French are killed. The rebellion forces Charles to abandon the planned crusade against the Byzantines, while still en route to the target city of Constantinople and allows King Peter III (the Great) to take over rule of the island from Charles (which in turn leads to Peter's excommunication by Pope Martin IV).
May 1 – Battle of Forlì: A French expeditionary army under Jean d'Eppe launches an assault on Forlì and breaches the outer wall. While they plunder the suburbs, Guido I da Montefeltro sends a small force out the gate on the opposite side of the city. In an ambush, Guelph and Ghibelline forces defeat the main army of d'Eppe, who is forced to retreat to Faenza. He requests Martin IV for more reinforcements, but this is refused.[19]
Summer – An Aragonese expeditionary army under Peter III lands in North Africa in Collo, in proclaimed support of a rebellion of the governor of Constantine, Ibn Wazir. The revolt is suppressed by Abu Ishaq Ibrahim I, ruler of the Hafsid Sultanate. Peter, wary of the situation in Sicily, sails off and fails to take advantage of the state of rebellion in North Africa. Ibrahim stabilizes his power and styles himself emir of the sultanate.[20]
June – The 24-year-old Prince Sancho, heir to the throne of Castile, assembles a coalition of nobles and starts a massive rebellion against his father, King Alfonso X (the Wise). He dispatches his brothers into the realm to claim strategically important cities and castles. Only the cities of Seville, Murcia, and Badajoz remain loyal to Alfonso, who becomes isolated politically and abandoned by most of his family.[21]
June 26 – King Denis I (the Poet King) marries the 11-year-old Elizabeth of Aragon, daughter of Peter III (the Great), in Trancoso. Elizabeth received the towns of Óbidos, Abrantes, and Porto de Mós as part of her dowry. Denis, known for his poetry, writes several poems and books himself, with topics of administration and hunting. During his reign, Lisbon becomes one of Europe's centers of art and culture.
July – Alfonso X (the Wise) allies himself with Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq, ruler of the Marinid Sultanate, who crosses the straits, and establishes a camp at Zahara de la Sierra, in southern Spain. Alfonso offers the Castilian royal crown of his father and grandfathers as a pledge of re-payment of a loan. Out of pity, Abu Yusuf gives him 100,000 gold dinars.[23]
August – Castilian forces under Sancho lay siege to Badajoz, who eventually retreat as the combined armies of Alfonso X (the Wise) relieve the city. Shortly after, Alfonso marches to Córdoba and demands the key of the city. This is refused by Diego López V de Haro, speaking on behalf of the magnates. Meanwhile, the Marinids plunder the Guadalquivir valley.
August 30 – Peter III (the Great) traveling with his fleet on a military expedition against Tunis, ends up in the Sicilian town of Trapani, after he was asked by the inhabitants of Palermo to help in the fight against Charles I.[24]
September or October – Battle of Lake Hód: Hungarian forces led by King Ladislaus IV successfully repel and defeat an invading Cuman army. Ladislaus receives the title "the Cuman" for his heroic victory.[26]
November – Castilian forces under Alfonso X (the Wise) reconquer Córdoba. Pope Martin IV issues a papal bull, forcing Sancho and his nobles to proclaim their allegiance to Alfonso ending the rebellion.
Dutch forces led by Floris V, count of Holland, attack and defeat the West Frisians at the battle of Vronen. He succeeds in retrieving the body of his father, William II, some 26 years dead.
King Stefan Dragutin breaks his leg while hunting and becomes ill. He abdicates the throne in favor of his younger brother, Stefan Milutin, who becomes ruler of Serbia (until 1321).
The form for the Trial of the Pyx, during which it is confirmed that newly minted coins conform to required standards, is established.
The first evidence is discovered of the existence of consolidated public debt in Bruges, confirming the expansion of use of annuities, to fund government expenditure to the Low Countries.[31]
July 8 – Battle of Malta: An Aragonese fleet (some 20 galleys) under Admiral Roger of Lauria attacks and defeats the Angevin ships in the Grand Harbour, sent to help put down a rebellion on Malta. Lauria lands his troops at the harbour and after two days raises his banner on the fortified city of Mdina ("Old City").
The first regulated Catalan Courts are reunited by King Peter III, for the whole Principality of Catalonia. It became one of the first medieval parliaments that bans the royal power to create legislation unilaterally.
King Philip III of France ("the Bold") outlaws Jews from residence in the small villages and rural localities of France, causing a mass migration.
February 13–14 – Battle of Thị Nại Bay: A Mongol-led Yuan expeditionary force (some 5,000 men) lands on the beach, near Champa's capital Vijaya in Vietnam. Despite being outnumbered, the Yuan invaders break the Cham defensive line and force King Indravarman V to retreat to the Western Highlands, where he wages a successful guerrilla campaign against the occupying Yuan forces.[40]
Mongol invasion of Burma: Mongol forces besiege the fortress at Ngasaunggyan on September 23. The Burmese garrison withstands the siege for two months, but finally falls to the invaders on December 3. The defeat breaks the morale of the Burmese defenses. Kaungsin, the next fortress in line, falls just six days later.[41]
The German city of Goslar starts making efforts to redeem its already issued annuities, a sure indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the 13th century crisis.[44]
Aragonese Crusade: The first French armies under King Philip III (the Bold) and his 14-year-old son Charles of Valois enter Roussillon. They include 16,000 cavalry, 17,000 crossbowmen, and 100,000 infantry, along with 100 ships in south French ports. Though they have the support of James II, ruler of Majorca, the local populace rises against them. Elne is valiantly defended by Aragonese troops, but the French occupy the city, and burn the cathedral, while the population is massacred.
April 4 – King Alfonso X (the Wise) falls ill and dies after a 32-year reign at Seville. He is succeeded by his 25-year-old son Sancho IV (the Brave) who becomes ruler of Castile and León. Meanwhile, his nephew, Alfonso de la Cerda, challenges his right to the Castilian throne. Pope Martin IV excommunicates Sancho, he placed an interdict on his kingdom and refuses to acknowledge the marriage to his cousin, Queen María de Molina.[45]
June 5 – Battle of the Gulf of Naples: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 30 galleys) led by Admiral Roger of Lauria surrounds and defeats the Neapolitan ships in the Gulf of Naples. King Charles II (the Lame) is captured during the battle, disorganized, the remnants of the Neapolitan fleet (between 15 and 18 galleys) flees back to Naples.
King Rudolf I imposes a trade embargo on Norway, due to the latter pillaging a German ship. The embargo cuts off vital supplies of grain, flour, vegetables and beer, causing a general famine in Norway.[46]
March 3 – Statute of Rhuddlan: King Edward I (Longshanks) brings Wales under direct rule after the Welsh Wars (1277–1283). He appoints sheriffs and bailiffs for the northern territories while the southern areas are left under the control of the Marcher Lords. English law is introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh are allowed to maintain their customary laws in some cases of property disputes.[48][49][50]
Edward I (Longshanks) arranges a Round Table event and tournament at Nefyn in Wales. He promises the Welsh that he will provide them with a Prince of Wales.
King Peter III (the Great) takes advantage of the weakness of the Hafsid Dynasty and raids the island of Djerba. Aragonese forces massacre the population and occupy the island.
By topic
Art and Culture
Construction of Beauvais Cathedral is interrupted by a partial collapse of the choir; the event unnerves French masons working in the Gothic style.
Aragonese Crusade: French forces led by King Philip III (the Bold) entrench before Girona, in an attempt to besiege the city. Despite strong resistance, the city is eventually taken on September 7. Philip's son, the 15-year-old Charles of Valois, is crowned as king of Aragon (under the vassalage of the Holy See) but without an actual crown. Shortly after, the French camp is racked by an epidemic of dysentery and Philip is forced to retreat.[54]
May – King Sancho IV (the Brave) assembles his army at Seville and sends the Castilian fleet (some 100 ships) led by Admiral Benedetto I Zaccaria to blockade the mouth of the Guadalquivir River. Meanwhile, a Marinid detachment of 1,000 cavalry moves against Seville, routing the Castilians send out to oppose them. Turning eastward against Carmona and Alcalá de Guadaíra, the Marinids burn the suburbs, harvest and ruin orchards.
May 22 – Marinid forces under Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq prolong their siege at Jerez de la Frontera. He sends his son Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr with 5,000 regulars, 2,000 cavalry, some 13,000 infantry and 2,000 archers to raid Seville and its environs on June 1. During June and early July, the Marinids assault daily Jerez while raiding parties pillage the countryside at Carmona, Niebla, Écija, Seville and Sanlúcar de Barrameda.[56]
August – Castilian forces led by Sancho IV (the Brave) march against the Marinids at Jerez de la Frontera. Meanwhile, Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq with his army of 18,000 cavalry and faced with dwindling supplies, decides to lift the siege after five months, on August 2. He withdraws his army to the safety of Algeciras and opens negotiations with Sancho while the Castilian fleet arrives at El Puerto de Santa Maria (or "The port of Saint Mary").[57]
September 4 – Battle of Les Formigues: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 40 galleys) under Admiral Roger of Lauria defeats French and Genoese ships near the Formigues Islands. According to Johan Esteve de Bezers, a French troubadour, all prisoners but one have their eyes gouged out, and that one is left with one eye to guide the others. After the battle, Roger captures about 15 to 20 French galleys, and others are sunk or burnt.
October 1 – Battle of the Col de Panissars: Aragonese forces under King Peter III (the Great) ambush and defeat a French expeditionary army while it was retreating over the Pyrenees. The French troops are massacred by the Aragonese vanguard at the Panissar Pass, but spared the royal family. Philip III (the Bold) arrives with his fatigued remnants in Perpignan, where he dies of dysentery on October 5.
November 2 – Peter III (the Great) dies after a 9-year reign at Vilafranca del Penedès. He is succeeded by his 20-year-old son Alfonso III (the Liberal), who becomes king of Aragon. Peter's other son James II (the Just), is crowned ruler of Sicily. His third son, the 13-year-old Frederick, becomes co-ruler and regent of Sicily.[58]
The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I (Longshanks), defines the jurisdictions of church and state, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
Levant
April 17 – Mamluk forces under Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) appear with specially built war engines before the Crusader fortress of Margat and begin a siege. For a month, the Mamluks can make no progress and the assaults on the stronghold are repelled. Qalawun then invites a delegation of Knights Hospitaller to come and see the damage his engineers have done to the 'impregnable' fortifications. They understood they have no real choice and are forced to surrender on May 25. The Hospitallers are allowed to retire with all their possessions, on horseback and fully armed. The rest of the garrison is promised a safe-conduct to Tortosa – while Qalawun establishes a Mamluk garrison which he uses as a basis for further campaigns against the Crusader States.[59]
Asia
June 24 – Battle of Chương Dương: Joint forces of Champa and Đại Việt defeat the Mongol-led Yuan fleet on the Red River. Most of the Yuan warships are burned during the battle, and the Mongol army retreats to China in late June. The Vietnamese royal court returns to the capital in Thang Long following a six-month conflict.[60]
The first record is made of an emission of life annuities, by the city of Lübeck. It is the first instance of issue of public debt in Germany, and it confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt over north-western Europe (see 1228).[61]
The County of Champagne is integrated into the kingdom of France; the region loses its haven characteristics for foreign merchants, and the Fairs of Troyes quickly dwindle into economic insignificance.[62]
Religion
January 6 – Archbishop Jakub Świnka organizes a synod in Łęczyca. During the meeting, he orders all priests who are subject to his bishopric to deliver their sermons in Polish rather than German. This further unifies the Catholic Church in Poland and fosters a national identity.
January 6 – The 17-year-old Philip IV (the Fair) is crowned king of France at Reims. He settles the Aragonese conflict (see 1285), and intensifies his predecessors' efforts to reform and rationalize the administration of the realm. Philip persists in reforms, which strengthen the monarchy's position in Europe. The gabelle – a tax on salt in the form of a state monopoly – will become immensely unpopular and grossly unequal, but persist until 1790.[64]
June – King Edward I (Longshanks) and Queen Eleanor of Castile travel to France. There they pay homage to Philip IV (the Fair) and attend to other matters. Edward travels around in the duchy of Gascony and orders the rebuilding of fortifications in the region (between 1286 and 1289).
Levant
June 4 – The 15-year-old Henry II sails from Cyprus and lands in Acre, but is refused entry into the citadel. There, he stays for six weeks in the palace to negotiate an agreement to take over the city from the Angevins.[69]
August 15 – Henry II is crowned king of Jerusalem at Tyre. After the ceremony, he returns to Acre for the festivities. A few weeks later, Henry returns to Cyprus and appoints his uncle Philip of Ibelin as regent (bailiff).[70]
In the Lao kingdom of Muang Sua, King Panya Leng is overthrown in a coup d'état led by his son, Prince Panya Khamphong, which is likely to have been supported by the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in China.
January 17 – Aragonese forces led by King Alfonso III (the Liberal) conquer the island of Menorca. He signs the "Treaty of San Agayz" with Sultan Abû 'Umar ibn Sa'îd on January 21. Alfonso accepts a policy of free trade for merchants and their property. He also concludes an alliance against the Marinids with Abu Said Uthman I, ruler of the Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen (modern Algeria). He proposes to supply him with five to ten galleys (with food and other goods) in exchange for 500 elite Zayyanid horsemen.[72]
Alfonso III (the Liberal) is forced to make concessions to the nobility after an aristocratic uprising (called the Union of Aragon). In particular, he grants his barons a "Bill of Rights", known as the Privilegium Generale. This leaves a heritage of disunity and further dissent among the nobility, who increasingly see little reason to respect the throne, and brings the Crown of Aragon to the point of anarchy. Alfonso, who is not pleased with the anti-royalist movement, is forced to accept the Magna Carta (Great Charter).[73]
June – Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, travels from Constantinople to Italy. There he arrives in Naples and witnesses a sea battle in the harbour between the Aragonese and the Angevin fleets. Bar Sauma goes to Rome, but arrives too late to meet Pope Honorius IV, who recently died. He instead is engaged in negotiations with the cardinals, who are in a conclave to elect a successor, and visits the St. Peter's Basilica. Bar Sauma goes to Genoa, where he receives a warm welcome.[74]
June 23 – Battle of the Counts: An Aragonese-Sicilian fleet (some 50 galleys) under Admiral Roger of Lauria defeat a larger Angevin fleet of 70 galleys near Naples. After a feigned retreat, Roger attacks the Angevin galleys from all sides. During the battle, which last much of the day, the Angevin fleet is scattered, leaving about 40 galleys to be captured, along with 5,000 prisoners. After the victory, without any authorization from King James II, Roger makes a truce with the Neapolitans (who are allies of the Angevins).
September – Rabban Bar Sauma arrives in Paris, and is received in an audience by King Philip IV (the Fair). He spends one month at the royal court, during his stay, Philip himself escorts him around the Sainte-Chapelle (or Holy Chapel) to see the collection of Passion relics by late King Louis IX (the Saint). Philip gives Bar Sauma many presents and sends one of his noblemen, Gobert de Helleville, to return with him to Mongol lands. In response, he attempts to form a military alliance with France and England.[75]
December 14 – A huge storm and associated storm tide in the North Sea and English Channel, known as St. Lucia's flood in the Netherlands, kills thousands and reshapes the coastline of the Netherlands and England. In the Netherlands, a fringing barrier between the North Sea and a shallow lake collapses, causing the fifth-largest flood in recorded history – which creates the Zuider Zee inlet, and kills over 50,000 people. It also gives sea access to Amsterdam, allowing its development as an important port city.
Winter – Mongol invasion of Poland: Mongol forces (some 30,000 men) under Talabuga Khan and Nogai Khan, attack Poland for the third time. The cities of Lublin, Sandomierz and Sieradz are devastated by the invaders. Nogai Khan besieges Kraków and launches an unsuccessful assault on the fortified city, suffering heavy casualties in the process.
England
February – South England flood: A large storm hits the south coast, this has a powerful effect on the Cinque Ports, two of which are hit (Hastings and New Romney). The storm destroys Old Winchelsea on Romney Marsh and nearby Broomhill. The course of the Rother River is diverted away from New Romney, which is almost destroyed, ending its role as a port; the Rother runs instead to the sea at Rye – whose prospects as a port are enhanced. A cliff collapses at Hastings, ending its role as a trade harbor and demolishing a part of Hastings Castle. New Winchelsea is established on higher ground.[76]
June 8 – Welsh forces led by Rhys ap Maredudd revolt in Wales against King Edward I (Longshanks). Although Maredudd has assisted the English in the past, he accuses Edward of treating him unfairly over taxes. The rebels burn several towns, including Swansea and Carmarthen. They capture most of Ystrad Tywi, heartland of Deheubarth (the revolt will not be suppressed until 1288).
Summer – Edward I (Longshanks) replies to the Welsh rebellion by raising an army at Gloucester commanded by Edmund of Almain. The English forces besiege Dryslwyn Castle, which lasts for three weeks before the castle falls after the curtain walls are undermined. Rhys ap Maredudd manages to escape and goes into hiding before the stronghold is finally captured in late September.
December – Parts of Norfolk are flooded, the port of Dunwich in Suffolk is further devastated, and in The Fens through the storm and the violence of the sea, the monastery of Spalding and many churches are overthrown and destroyed: "The whole country in the parts of Holland was, for the most part, turned into a standing pool so that an intolerable multitude of men, women and children were overwhelmed with the water, especially in the town of Boston, a great part thereof was destroyed."[77]
Middle East
Spring – Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate, sends an embassy under Rabban Bar Sauma with the mission of contracting a military alliance against the Mamluk Sultanate and take the city of Jerusalem. He travels with a large retinue (bearing gifts and letters) and 30 riding animals from Tabriz through Armenia to Trebizond. Bar Sauma arrives in Constantinople and receives an audience with Emperor Andronikos II (Palaiologos).[78]
March – Mamluk forces under Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) capture Latakia, last remnant of the Principality of Antioch. The city port falls easily into his hands, but the defenders retire to the citadel at the mouth of the harbour. Finally, Qalawun forces the Crusader garrison to surrender on April 20.[79]
Winter – Two unidentified 'merchants' travel from Alexandria to Cairo to warn Qalawun of the economic dangers posed by Genoese domination in the eastern Mediterranean, which leaves the Mamluk trade at their mercy. Qalawun accepts the invitation to intervene, and breaks the truce with Tripoli.[81]
May 14 – Nayan, Mongol prince of the Borjigin clan, revolts against the rule of Kublai Khan. Kublai leads a punitive expedition against Nayan in Manchuria and defeats his forces on July 16.
December – Battle of Pagan: Mongol-led Yuan forces (some 7,000 cavalry) led by Temür Khan defeat King Thihathu of the Pagan Kingdom. The kingdom disintegrates and anarchy ensues.
The Altar of St. James in Pistoia Cathedral, Italy – a masterwork of the silversmithing trade containing nearly a ton of silver – is begun; it will not be completed for nearly 200 years.
Economy
The Italian city of Siena exacts a forced loan from its taxpayers for the first time, a common feature of medieval public finance.[84]
April 3 – Pope Honorius IV dies after a 2-year pontificate at Rome. During his reign, he tries to restore Sicily to papal vassalage, but Honorius clashes with King Peter III (the Great), who supports Sicilian independence.
A civil war breaks out on Gotland between the burghers of Visby and the rural farmers of Gotland; while the exact reason for this war is unknown, the most likely reason is the construction of a large wall around Visby, and the introduction of a toll, which the farmers were forced to pay.[86]
Summer – Sultan Muhammad II drives the rebellious Banu Ashqilula from one stronghold to the next, where they are finally expelled from Granadan territory in Al-Andalus (modern Spain). Meanwhile, Muhammad manages through diplomatic intrigue, to turn the Castilian aristocracy against King Sancho IV (the Brave). In response, King Alfonso III (the Liberal) proclaims the 18-year-old Alfonso de la Cerda as ruler of Castile and León.[87]
August 8 – Pope Nicholas IV proclaims a crusade against the 26-year-old King Ladislaus IV (the Cuman), who had lost credibility by favoring his semi-pagan Cuman subjects in Hungary, and in general refusing to conform to the social standards of Western Europe. Meanwhile, the Hungarian government loses more power because the clergy and most of the nobles rule the kingdom independently.[88][89]
The Parliament of Scotland creates a law allowing women to propose marriage to men during leap years; men who refuse such proposals are required to pay a fine to the spurned bride-to-be.
Levant
Spring – Genoa orders Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria to send five galleys to support Genoese suzerainty of Tripoli. Princess Lucia, sister of the late Count Bohemond VII, arrives in Acre, where the Knights Hospitaller escort her to the frontier with Tripoli. The commune refuses to accept her as new ruler and places the city under Genoese protection. After negotiations, Lucia offers to confirm Genoa's existing commercial privileges in Tripoli.[91]
The Flemish city of Ghent seeks rights to start redeeming its already issued annuities. It is a clear indication of financial difficulty, and maybe an early sign of the crisis of the 13th Century.[93]
March–April – Rabban Bar Sauma, Chinese Nestorian monk and diplomat, arrives at Rome and is received by Nicholas IV, who gives him communion on Palm Sunday.[94]
Technology
The oldest-known bronzehandgun in the world is dated to this year, a Chinese gun found in Acheng District, that was once used to suppress the rebellion of the Mongol prince Nayan.
July 7 – Battle of Copenhagen: A Norwegian expeditionary force under King Eric II, supported by Danish outlaws, sets sail to Copenhagen and attacks the city. But they are repelled and forced to withdraw to Zealand.
Construction of Conwy Castle in Wales, ordered by Edward I (Longshanks), is completed.
Levant
February 9 – Sultan Qalawun (the Victorious) marches the Mamluk army out of Cairo, leaving his son Al-Ashraf Khalil commanding Cairo's Citadel, supported by Viceroy Baydara al-Mansuri. The army moves via Salihiya, across Sinai and through Jordan to Damascus. He orders the regional governors of Syria to mobilize in Damascus, where many infantry volunteers have assembled.[97]
March – The 19-year-old King Henry II sends his younger brother Almalric, with a company of knights and 4 galleys to Tripoli (modern Lebanon). Meanwhile, many non-combatant citizens flee to Cyprus. The Mamluk army arrives before Tripoli and begins the attack with siege engines, while building buches (wooden defensive structures) outside the city on March 25.[98]
April 26 – Siege of Tripoli: Mamluk forces under Qalawun (the Victorious) capture Tripoli after a month-long siege, thus extinguishing the County of Tripoli. Qalawun orders the city to be razed to the ground, a widespread massacre kills every man found by the Mamluks, while the women and children are taken as slaves.[99]
July–August – Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria, having escaped from Tripoli, starts a naval campaign against Mamluk shipping and raids Tinnis in Egypt. In response, Qalawun closes Alexandria to Genoese merchants.[100]
In Siena, twenty-three partners, including five members of the Bonsignori family, re-create the Gran Tavola, formerly the most successful European bank, which had ceased its operations after the death of its creator and manager, Orlando Bonsignori, in 1273.[101]
Significant people
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (March 2016)
^Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, p. 137. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. ISBN0-87169-114-0.
^Geanakoplos, Deno John (1959). Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258-1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations, pp. 341–42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. OCLC1011763434.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 81. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 149. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 327–328. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Shaw, Stanford (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, pp. 13–14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-29163-7.
^Davis, Paul K. (1999). 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present, p. 145. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-514366-9.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Kleinherz, Christopher (2004). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia, p. 473. Routledge.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 163. ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 82. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Morris, Marc (2008). A Great and Terrible King: Edward I and the Forging of Britain, p. 180. London: Hutchinson. ISBN978-0-09-179684-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 83. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Chaytor, H.J. (1933). A History of Aragon and Catalonia, p. 103. London: Methuen. ISBN978-0-404-01479-7.
^ Harris, Jonathan (2003). Byzantium and the Crusades, p. 180. London: Hambledon. ISBN978-1-85285-298-6.
^Berend, Nora (2001). At the Gate of Christendom: Jews, Muslims and "Pagans" in Medieval Hungary, c. 1000–c.1300. Cambridge University Press. p. 147. ISBN978-0-521-02720-5.
^Prestwich, Michael (1997). Edward I, pp. 191–92 (updated ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-07209-0.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 149. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-17565-5.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 86. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Gaprindashvili, Ghivi (1975). Ancient Monuments of Georgia: Vardzia, pp. 7–25 (in English, Russian and Georgian). Aurora Art Publishers, Leningrad. ISBN978-1-135-68320-7.
^"Fires, Great", in The Insurance Cyclopeadia: Being an Historical Treasury of Events and Circumstances Connected with the Origin and Progress of Insurance, p. 27. Cornelius Walford, ed. (C. and E. Layton, 1876).
^Palmer, Alan; Palmer, Veronica (1992). The Chronology of British History. London: Century Ltd. pp. 90–91. ISBN0-7126-5616-2.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History. p. 149. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 329. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 161. ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Delgado, James P. (2008). Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada, p. 158. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN978-0-520-25976-8.
^Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of South-East Asia, pp. 193–194. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-824-80368-1.
^Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized States of South-East Asia, pp. 127–128. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-824-80368-1.
^According to the earliest written record, of 1384, in the city records of Hamelin. Harty, Sheila (1994). "Pied Piper Revisited". In Bridges, David; McLaughlin, Terence H. (eds.). Education And The Market Place. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN0-7507-0348-2.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: Britain, 1066–1284, p. 511. London, UK: Penguin Books. ISBN0-140-14824-8.
^Davies, R. R. (2000). The Age of Conquest: Wales, 1063–1415, p. 368. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-820878-2.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Álgérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. pp. 161-63. ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Hallam, Elizabeth M. (1980). Capetian France: 987–1328, p. 356. Longman. ISBN978-0-582-40428-1.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 90. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, pp. 90–91. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 91. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 330–31. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Stone, Zofia (2017). Genghis Khan: A Biography, p. 76. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN978-93-86367-11-2.
^Zuijderduijn, Jaco (2009). Medieval Capital Markets. Markets for renten, state formation and private investment in Holland (1300-1550). Leiden/Boston: Brill. ISBN978-90-04-17565-5.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 332. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte;;. p. 158. ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, p. 95. ISBN978-08122-2302-6.
^Chaytor, Henry John (1933). A History of Aragon and Catalonia, p. 126. London: Methuen.
^Morris Rossabi (2014). From Yuan to Modern China and Mongolia: The Writings of Morris Rossabi. BRILL. pp. 385–386. ISBN978-90-04-28529-3.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 337. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, pp. 337–338. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 339. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique. De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 163. ISBN978-2-7071-5231-2.
^Coedès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, p. 195. Translation: Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-0368-1.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Walter, Ingeborg (1969). "Boccamazza, Giovanni". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, p. 169. Volume 11: Boccadibue–Bonetti (in Italian). Rome: Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana. ISBN978-8-81200032-6.
^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait, pp. 95–96. ISBN978-0-8122-2302-6.
^Engel, Pál (2001). The Realm of St. Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526, p. 109. Tauris Publishers. ISBN1-86064-061-3.
^Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary, p. 84. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN963-9165-37-9.
^Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century, p. 246. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-1-107-60474-2.
^David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 17. ISBN978-1-84176-862-5.
^Elleman, Bruce A. (2012). China as a Sea Power, 1127-1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods, pp. 236–237. Naval War College: NUS Press, ISBN9789971695057.
^Munro, John H. (2003). "The Medieval Origins of the Financial Revolution". The International History Review. 15 (3): 506–562.
^Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Rabban Bar Sauma". Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 767. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
^Kelly de Vries & Niccolo Capponi (2018). Osprey: Campaldino 1289 - The battle that made Dante, pp. 51–86. ISBN978-1--4728-3128-6.
^Williams, Hywel (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 150. ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states, p. 46. ISBN978-1-84176-862-5.
^Steven Runciman (1952). A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre, p. 340. ISBN978-0-241-29877-0.
^Miller, William (1921). "The Zaccaria of Phocaea and Chios (1275-1329)". Essays on the Latin Orient, p. 284. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. OCLC457893641.
^Bowsky, William (1981). A medieval Italian commune: Siena under the Nine, 1287-1355. University of California Press. ISBN0-520-04256-5.
^Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1997) [1976]. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1. Empire of the Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN9780521291637.
![[icon]](File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
