The Dakota language (Dakota: Dakhód'iapi or Dakȟótiyapi), also referred to as Dakhóta, is a Siouan language spoken by the Dakota people of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, commonly known in English as the Sioux. Dakota is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language. It is definitely endangered, with only around 290 fluent speakers left out of an ethnic population of almost 250,000.
Morphology
Nouns
Dakota, similar to many Native American languages, is a mainly polysynthetic language, meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for example makhá or earth, phéta or fire, and até or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on the other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories.
Verbs
Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, through agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal, prepositional, and adverbial or modal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, forming participles. Like in English, Dakota verbs also have three persons, the first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the addition (first and second person) or subtraction (third person, the verb is used in its simplest form) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, the aorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns,[2] sometimes called the indefinite) and the future. In order to express the future tense, the suffixes kta or kte are placed after the verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said.[2]
Tháŋka "to be large, great in size or renown; to be a grown up"
Transitive; An action that requires an object or subject.
Yutháŋka "to make something bigger, enlarge, expand"
Affixes
In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verb wóyakA means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed "-ki-", the word becomes wókiyakA, which means "to tell someone". On the other hand, by adding the suffix "-pi," the word becomes "wóyakapi", which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories".
Dakota being an agglutinative language means that affixes are added to the root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota word akáȟpekičičhiyA, means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel". This word is made up of the root word kaȟpÁ (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix -kičičhiyA meaning "to or for, (causative)", and the prefix a- meaning "upon" AkáȟpA + -kiči + -čhiyA = Akáȟpekičičhiye.
Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner.
Infixoids
Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either as infixes, circumfixes, or transfixes depending on the word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word.
For example, the Dakota verb "dá" means "to ask for something". If you want to say "I ask for something from you", you add the affixes ki- to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), and čhi- 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in "čhičída". However, the verb eyÁ "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you", you would add the same affix ki- as an infix instead, with ni-2sT resulting in "eníčiye" (ni- + ki- + eyÁ).
Similarly, the affix -uŋ- which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with -uŋ-...-pi "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on the verb in use. The verb iyáyA "to leave or pass by" in 1s ibdábde (I leave), while in 1d uŋkíyaye (you and I leave). The same affix in the verb máni "to walk" is infixed as 1d maúŋni.
This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to the specific context and meaning of the word being used.
Pronoun infixoids
1s -wa- "I"
1sT -ma- "I, (target/status)"
1s2T -čhi- "I to you"
1s3pT -wičhawa- "I to them all"
2s -ya- "you"
2T -ni- "you, (target/status)"
2s1sT -maya- "you to me"
2s3pT -wičhaya- "you to them all"
2s/p1pT -uŋya-...-pi "you/you all to us all"
1d -uŋ- "you and I; you and I, (target/status); 1p -uŋ-...+pi "we all (actors); us all, (target/status)"
1p2sT -uŋni- "we all to you"; 1p -uŋni-...+pi "we all to you all"
1d3pT -wičhuŋ- "you and I to them all"; 1p3pT -wičhuŋ-...+pi "we all to them all"
3T -wičha- "they all, plural collective (target/status)"
Bo- indicates impact by hitting or poking from a distance; 2. by impact via transportation; 3. by natural forces such as blowing wind, waves, lightning; 4. by blowing via mouth
1s bowá-, 2s boyá-, 1d/p boúŋ-.../pi
Ka- indicates an action done by striking or hitting with a tool, such as a hammer or an axe; 2. by natural forces such as wind or water, an outer force, (creates impersonal verbs that refer to natural elements); 3. can diminish adverbs to mean "somewhat, a little"
1s waká-, 2s yaká-, 1d/p uŋká-.../pi
Na- indicates an action of the foot or leg, such as kicking out, walking, standing; 2. of its own accord by an inside force, on its own, by itself; 3. automatically, such as by automation
1s nawá-, 2s nayá-, 1d/p uŋná-.../pi
Pa- indicates an action done by pushing away from the actor, by pressure with the body or with a tool
1s wapá-, 2s yapá-, 1d/p uŋpá-.../pi
Ya- indicates an action done by mouth, both literally and figuratively, such as yaȟtákA "biting," yawášte "blessing," yaónihaŋ "honoring
1s bda-, 2s da-, 1d/p uŋyá-.../pi
Yu- indicates an action done by hand, by pulling towards the actor or manually; 2. general causation; 3. indicates use of scissors
1s bdu-, 2s du-, 1d/p uŋyú-.../pi
Possessive instrumental prefixes
Hd- indicates the possessive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as hdakčá "to comb one's own hair", hdawášte "to bless one's own", and hduwášte "to improve one's own"
Ihd- indicates the reflexive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as ihdáčho "to judge one's self", ihdúžaža "to wash one's self"
A- on, upon, over; 2. for a purpose; 3. in addition to
E- to, at; denotes that the action is done at a place; of some verbs starting with "i," it makes a collective plural form: as, inážiŋ, "to stand", énažiŋ, "they all stand"; iyáyA, "to be gone", éyayA, "they all have gone"
I- in regards to, on account of, because of; by, with a tool, changes active verbs into a tool object; makes ordinal numbers of cardinal numbers; prefixed to time nouns it means the following one
O- in, into, inside; around, abouts, in a certain area; creates certain kinds of nouns; generalizes certain words
Abstract and indefinite object markers
Wa- the main indefinite object marker; can create nouns from verbs, give verbs a more general or abstract meaning such as "people" or "things."
Wi- When Wa- comes before the vowel "i" it becomes wi- and forms instrument nouns; also the classifier for human women and terms related to the thípi.
Wo- When Wa- comes before the vowel "o" it becomes wó and creates abstract notions such as wóinina "the virtue of stillness"; also when the prefix wa- contracts with the prefix yu- such as wóžaža "to do laundry," (wa- + yužáža).
Suffixes
-yA, -yAŋ causative suffix
1s -waye, 2s -yaye, 1p -uŋyapi/uŋyaŋpi
-khiyA, khiyAŋ dative 1 causative
-kiyA, kiyAŋ possessive causative
-pi plural suffix, can often make verbs into nouns equivalent to -ing in English
1p -uŋ-...-pi, 2p -ya-...-pi, 3p ...-pi
Enclitic suffixes
-phiča to be possible, good for, to be doable, feasible
-daŋ, -da, -na diminutive suffix, makes nouns small or beloved
3p -pidaŋ, -pida, -pina; such as hokšípidaŋ "little boys"
-ȟčA, -ȟ very much, really, particularly; such as nínaȟče "very much so, it really is..."
šni negative suffix, negates any verb it follows, such as wašté šni "not good"
A duplifix is a morpheme that is a morphological process in which the root or part of a word (or even the whole word) is repeated exactly or with a slight change. Unlike other types of affixes, duplifixes can emphasize or intensify the meaning of the word rather than change its grammatical function, or can be used to indicate plurality or repetition, or to modify adjectives or verbs for emphasis. This is commonly called reduplication. Examples are as such; waštéšte "good things", p’op’ó "it is very foggy", and šigšíčA "bad things, ugly things"
Possessive pronouns and pronominal affixes
In order to show possession in Dakota, a possessive pronoun may be prefixed whichever noun is being possessed. Two forms of possessive nouns occur, the natural class and the artificial or alienable class. Natural class pronouns express possession that cannot be alienated, and when prefixed to a noun, signifies the different parts of one's self. For example, the possessive natural article pronoun mi-, which means "my," can be added to nouns such as "eye," in miíšta, or "words," in mióie; for inalienable objects such as one's body or intellectual property, and in some cases for possessive form of relative terms such as "my little brother," misúŋ, or "my daughter," mičhúŋkši. (However most relative terms are in their base form possessive; or use the causative suffix -yA.) Meanwhile, artificial possessive pronouns are used to signify property and possessions that can be transferred or traded. For example, the artificial pronoun tha-, which may become thi-, and tho-, is equivalent to the verb tháwa, "his or hers," can be prefixed onto nouns such as "bow," in thinázipe, and "friend," in thakhódaku.[2]
Syntax
Nouns and verbs
Dakota is mainly a subject-object-verb (SOV) language, where nouns, whether they are the subject or object, always come before the verb. And when two nouns are used in the same clause, where one is the subject and the other is the object, the subject is most usually placed first. Verbs are also usually placed after adjectives that are used to qualify either the subject or the object and adverbs that qualify the verb. When additional words are used within a clause that are not either nouns or verbs, the nouns, both subject and object, are always placed at the beginning of the clause.[2]
Dialects
Dakota has two major dialects with two sub-dialects each:
Eastern Dakota (a.k.a. Santee-Sisseton or Dakhóta)
Western Dakota (a.k.a. Yankton-Yanktonai or Dakȟóta/Dakhóta, and erroneously classified, for a very long time, as "Nakota"[5])
Yankton (Iháŋktȟuŋ)
Lower Yanktonai (Húŋkpathi)
Upper Yanktonai (Wičhíyena)
The two dialects differ phonologically, grammatically, and to a large extent, also lexically. They are mutually intelligible to a high extent, although Western Dakota appears lexically closer to the Lakota language with which it has high mutual intelligibility.
Writing systems
For a comparative table of the various writing systems conceived over time for the Dakota languages, cf. the specific section of the article Sioux language.
Phonology
Vowels
Dakota has five oral vowels, /aeiou/, and three nasal vowels, /ãĩũ/.
In respect to phonology, Eastern and Western Dakota differ particularly in consonant clusters. The table below gives the possible consonant clusters and shows the differences between the dialects:
Dakota consonant clusters
Santee Sisseton
Yanktonai
Yankton
m
b
ȟ
p
s
š
t
h/k/g
m
ȟm
sm
hm
km
gm
n
mn
ȟn
sn
šn
hn
kn
gn
b
ȟb
sb
šb
hb
kb
gb
d
bd
ȟd
sd
šd
hd
kd
gd
p
ȟp
sp
šp
kp
t
ȟt
pt
st
št
kt
č
ȟč
pč
sč
kč
k
sk
šk
tk
s
ps
ks
š
pš
kš
The two dialects also differ in the diminutive suffix (-daŋ, -da in Santee, and -na in Yankton-Yanktonai and in Sisseton) and in a number of other phonetic issues that are harder to categorize. The following table gives examples of words that differ in their phonology.
There are also numerous lexical differences between the two Dakota dialects as well as between the sub-dialects. Yankton-Yanktonai is in fact lexically closer to the Lakota language than it is to Santee-Sisseton. The following table gives some examples:
English gloss
Santee-Sisseton
Yankton-Yanktonai
Lakota
Northern Lakota
Southern Lakota
child
šičéča / wakháŋheža
wakȟáŋyeža
wakȟáŋyeža
knee
hupháhu
čhaŋkpé
čhaŋkpé
knife
isáŋ / mína
mína
míla
kidneys
phakšíŋ
ažúŋtka
ažúŋtka
hat
wapháha
wapȟóštaŋ
wapȟóštaŋ
still
hináȟče
naháŋȟčiŋ
naháŋȟčiŋ
man
wičhášta
wičháša
wičháša
hungry
wótehda
dočhíŋ
ločhíŋ
morning
haȟ'áŋna
híŋhaŋna
híŋhaŋna
híŋhaŋni
to shave
kasáŋ
kasáŋ
kasáŋ
glak'óǧa
Grammatical differences
Yankton-Yanktonai has the same three ablaut grades as Lakota (a, e, iŋ), while in Santee-Sisseton there are only two (a, e). This significantly impacts word forms, especially in fast speech and it is another reason why Yankton-Yanktonai has better mutual intelligibility with Lakota than with Santee-Sisseton.
There are other grammatical differences between the dialects.
Revitalization efforts and resources
Academic and immersion programs
The University of Minnesota was the first American University to establish a Dakota language class in their American Indian studies department. In 1966 a small group petitioned the University's administration to "establish links between the University and Minnesota's eleven federally-recognized tribes to develop recruitment and retention efforts for American Indian students, and to create courses on issues of importance to American Indian communities".[8] In 2022, University of Minnesota's American Indian Studies Department and the Dakota Language Program collaborated to develop the Dakota Language House Living Learning Community in hopes of it becoming a full-immersion Dakota program. It is an opportunity for students to live with others who are speaking, or learning to speak, Dakota. Dakota language instructor Šišóka Dúta (Sisithunwan-Wahpethunwan Dakhota) noted, "To speak the language is to literally breathe life into the language because you're using the air to speak language, and so, in a metaphorical but in the literal way. So by speaking the language, we're breathing life into it and that's actually a phrase in our language".[9] The University's classes currently include classes on teaching Dakota, alongside Dakota Linguistics, for years one through four.[8] In 2023, the University introduced a Dakota language major program. [10]
In 1979, the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate college was established. They maintain a Dakota studies program, with Dakota language specialist trainings.[11] The college has a dictionary and other materials available on their website, created through grants at their Kaksiza Caŋhdeṡka Center.[12] These books and materials are hand crafted with the hard work and dedication of elder speakers of the Lake Traverse reservation community, with regular weekly meetings to create curriculum or work with learners; President Azure at the time said, "Many of our graduates are now out in the community and k-12 schools teaching what they learned and how they learned it, and are continuing to succeed in language revitalization".[12] They also have an online Dakota/English dictionary.[13] The University of Minnesota and the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate College are working together to create the Dakota Language Audio Journal, which will be the first publicly available language journal, featuring recordings of conversations and stories.[14]
In 2017, the Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community funded a Dakota language training program called Voices of Our Ancestors, which provided four tribal communities with the resources to immerse 20 students in 40 hours a week of language.[15] The tribal colleges which participated were Cankdeska Cikana Community College in North Dakota, Fort Peck Community College in Montana, the Nebraska Indian Community College Santee campus and the Sisseton Wahpeton College in South Dakota.[15] The Fort Peck Culture Department create the Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder in the same year.[16]
In 2018, the Lower Sioux Indian Community launched their Dakota immersion Head Start[17][18] and also maintains online language classes to support the learning of their children and their families.[19] The Dakota Wicohan program on Lower Sioux works with older youth to immerse them in the language and culture.[18] Dakota Wicohan offers curriculum on Dakota values, language and customs through their website.[20]
A Dakota-English Dictionary by Stephen Return Riggs is a historic resource for referencing dialect and historic documents.[24] The accuracy of the work is disputed, as Riggs left provisions in the English copy untranslated in the Dakota version and sometimes revised the meaning of Dakota words to fit a Eurocentric viewpoint.[25]Dakota Prisoner of War Letters is a great historic resource as it highlights fluently written Dakota language letters from the time of the Camp Kearney prison camp located in Davenport, IA, in 1863–1866.[26] These letters are to relatives back home or to their closest representative they could find.[26] It is the work of Dr. Clifford Canku as well as Michael Simon.[26]
The Dakhóta Iápi Okhódakičhiye worked with Dakota language speakers, teachers, and linguists to create their Speak Dakota! textbooks, which are a fully illustrated series that is linguistically and pedagogically consistent. In 2023, the group released a free Dakota language app called, Dakhód Iápi Wičhóie Wówapi, containing more than 28,000 words and 40,000 audio files to aid in pronunciation.[27]
Remember This! Dakota Decolonization and the Eli Taylor Narratives takes a unique approach to Indigenous history by centering Dakota language and oral tradition as crucial components of the decolonization framework.[28] This is different from other works in the field, as it solely relies on Indigenous oral tradition as primary sources and gives prominence to Dakota language in the text.
Beginning Dakota - Tokaheya Dakota Iapi Kin by Nicolette Knudson, Jody Snow, and Clifford Canku is an online lesson portal by Minnesota Historical Society.[29] Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has free learning resources for Dakota on their website that are centered around child and family learning, such as holidays and other activities like coloring books.[30][31] Further, the director of Wíyouŋkihipi Productions has more resources on their personal artist site including Dakota land maps with audio pronunciations.[32] Another mapping project called the Makxoche Washte: The Beautiful Country, is a Dakota and Lakota language map which is arguably the most extensive map in all of Dakota history and utilizes Google Maps.[33]
Notable first-language speakers
Carolyn Schommer (Waȟpéthuŋ Wiŋ) – Born in 1930, Schommer grew up in Granite Falls, alongside her 10 siblings and were raised by parents who were both Dakota first-language speakers. Her grandfather was ÍŋyaŋgmaniHokšída, Running Walker Boy, the son of Chief Running Walker, Íŋyaŋgmani.[34] Her parents taught her only the Dakota language, which meant that she had to learn English and a new way of life when she started school at a white school. She is now (2023) 93 years old and is one of the few remaining first-language speakers in Minnesota.[35][36] She taught at numerous schools including the University of Minnesota when it first established its Indian Studies department in 1969 and has worked on numerous publications throughout her lifetime.[35]
^Language, Fort Peck; Department, Culture (January 10, 2017). "Yanktonai Dakota Vocab Builder". Apps on Google Play. Archived from the original on August 14, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
^Schmierbach, Edie (October 13, 2019). "Dakota language all around us". Mankato Free Press. Archived from the original on October 13, 2019. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
^Blackthunder, Elijah (April 25, 2023). "Dakota Iapi Resources". Lower Sioux Early Head Start and Head Start. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
^"Dakota Language Certificate". Cankdeska Cikana Community College. October 21, 2021. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
^Riggs, S.R.; Dorsey, J.O. (1892). A Dakota-English Dictionary. Contributions to North American ethnology (in Italian). U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
^ abWilson, Diane (September 14, 2013). "Carrolynn (Carrie) Schommer". Phillips Indian Educators. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved May 5, 2023.
DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001). Sioux until 1850. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 718–760). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN0-16-050400-7.
Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). The Siouan languages. In Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94–114). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
Rood, David S.; & Taylor, Allan R. (1996). Sketch of Lakhota, a Siouan language. In Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 440–482). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Parks, D.R.; DeMallie, R.J. (1992). "Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney Dialects: A Classification". Anthropological Linguistics. 34 (1–4): 233–255. JSTOR30028376.
Riggs, S.R., & Dorsey, J.O. (Ed.). (1973). Dakota grammar, texts, and ethnography. Minneapolis: Ross & Haines, Inc.
Shaw, P.A. (1980). Theoretical issues in Dakota phonology and morphology. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
