Hedonic hotspots – i.e., the pleasure centers of the brain – are functionally linked. Activation of one hotspot results in the recruitment of the others. Inhibition of one hotspot results in the blunting of the effects of activating another hotspot.[10][11] Therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.[12]
A 1706 English dictionary defines euphoria as "the well bearing of the Operation of a Medicine, i.e., when the patient finds himself eas'd or reliev'd by it".[15]
During the 1860s, the English physician Thomas Laycock described euphoria as the feeling of bodily well-being and hopefulness; he noted its misplaced presentation in the final stage of some terminal illnesses and attributed such euphoria to neurological dysfunction.[16]Sigmund Freud's 1884 monograph Über Coca described (his own) consumption of cocaine producing "the normal euphoria of a healthy person",[17] while about 1890 the German neuropsychiatristCarl Wernicke lectured about the "abnormal euphoria" in patients with mania.[18]
A 1903 article in The Boston Daily Globe refers to euphoria as "pleasant excitement" and "the sense of ease and well-being".[19] In 1920 Popular Science magazine described euphoria as "a high sounding name" meaning "feeling fit": normally making life worth living, motivating drug use, and ill formed in certain mental illnesses.[20]Robert S. Woodworth's 1921 textbook Psychology: A study of mental life, describes euphoria as an organic state which is the opposite of fatigue, and "means about the same as feeling good."[21]
In 1940, The Journal of Psychology defined euphoria as a "state of general well being ... and pleasantly toned feeling."[22] A decade later, finding ordinary feelings of well being difficult to evaluate, American addiction researcher Harris Isbell redefined euphoria as behavioral changes and objective signs typical of morphine.[23] However, in 1957 British pharmacologist D. A. Cahal did not regard opioid euphoria as medically undesirable but an effect which "enhance[s] the value of a major analgesic."[24] The 1977 edition of A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry called euphoria "a mood of contentment and well-being," with pathologic associations when used in a psychiatric context. As a sign of cerebral disease, it was described as bland and out of context, representing an inability to experience negative emotion.[25]
In the 21st century, euphoria is generally defined as a state of great happiness, well-being and excitement, which may be normal, or abnormal and inappropriate when associated with psychoactive drugs, manic states, or brain disease or injury.[26]
Hedonic hotspots are functionally interrelated neural substrates/structures that (intrinsically or extrinsically) generate the feelings of pleasure. Activation of one hedonic hotspot involves the stimulation of the others. Inhibition of one hedonic hotspot blunts the activation the other ones.[10][11] Therefore, the simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is probably necessary for generating the sensation of euphoria.[12]
Continuous exercise can produce a transient state of euphoria – an emotional state involving the experience of pleasure and feelings of profound contentment, elation, and well-being – which is colloquially known as a "runner's high" in distance running or a "rower's high" in rowing.[28][29][30][31]
Euphoria can occur as a result of dancing to music, music-making, and listening to emotionally arousing music.[4][32][33] Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that the reward system plays a central role in mediating music-induced pleasure.[33][34] Pleasurable emotionally arousing music strongly increases dopamine neurotransmission in the dopaminergic pathways that project to the striatum (i.e., the mesolimbic pathway and nigrostriatal pathway).[32][33][34] Approximately 5% of the population experiences a phenomenon termed "musical anhedonia", in which individuals do not experience pleasure from listening to emotionally arousing music despite having the ability to perceive the intended emotion that is conveyed in passages of music.[34]
A clinical study from January 2019 that assessed the effect of a dopamine precursor (levodopa), dopamine antagonist (risperidone), and a placebo on reward responses to music – including the degree of pleasure experienced during musical chills, as measured by changes in electrodermal activity as well as subjective ratings – found that the manipulation of dopamine neurotransmission bidirectionally regulates pleasure cognition (specifically, the hedonic impact of music) in human subjects.[35][36] This research suggests that increased dopamine neurotransmission acts as a sine qua non condition for pleasurable hedonic reactions to music in humans.[35][36]
Sex-induced
The various stages of copulation may also be described as inducing euphoria in some people. Various analysts have described either the entire sexual act, the moments leading to orgasm, or the orgasm itself as the pinnacle of human pleasure or euphoria.[37]
Certain gases, like nitrous oxide (N2O, aka "laughing gas"), can induce euphoria when inhaled.[5][66]
Psychedelics
Traditional psychedelic drugs, such as LSD and psilocybin are capable of inducing euphoria despite lacking addictive qualities. The Global Drug Survey has revealed that out of 22,000 participant reports, MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms were ranked most positively on the Net Pleasure Index of all recreational drugs included in the study.[67]
Glucocorticoids
Acute exogenous glucocorticoid administration is known to produce euphoria, but this effect is not observed with long-term exposure.[5]
List of euphoriants by mechanism of action
The following is a full list of euphoriant or rewarding/reinforcing drugs:[68][69][70]
Fasting has been associated with improved mood, well-being, and sometimes euphoria. Various mechanisms have been proposed and possible applications in treating depression considered.[93]
Neuropsychiatric
Mania
Euphoria is also strongly associated with both hypomania and mania, mental states characterized by a pathological heightening of mood, which may be either euphoric or irritable, in addition to other symptoms, such as pressured speech, flight of ideas, and grandiosity.[94][95]
Although hypomania and mania are syndromes with multiple etiologies (that is, ones that may arise from any number of conditions), they are most commonly seen in bipolar disorder, a psychiatric illness characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.[94][95]
Some persons experience euphoria in the prodrome – hours to days before the onset – of a migraine headache.[104][105][106] Similarly, a euphoric state occurs in some persons following the migraine episode.[104][106]
Multiple sclerosis
Euphoria sometimes occurs in persons with multiple sclerosis as the illness progresses. This euphoria is part of a syndrome originally called euphoria sclerotica, which typically includes disinhibition and other symptoms of cognitive and behavioral dysfunction.[107][108]
Gender euphoria
Gender euphoria is satisfaction or enjoyment felt by a person due to consistency between their gender identity and gendered features associated with a gender different to the sex they were assigned at birth. It is considered to be the positive counterpart of gender dysphoria.[109] Related euphorias have also been recorded in studies of alignments between sexual identity and social recognition such as support in schools for lesbian and gay people, and experiences of intersex variation and their diagnoses such as receiving a diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia which explained physical differences for example.[110]
^ abcdeBearn J, O'Brien M (2015). "Chapter Ten - "Addicted to Euphoria": The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse". "Addicted to Euphoria": The History, Clinical Presentation, and Management of Party Drug Misuse. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 120. Academic Press. pp. 205–33. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.005. ISBN9780128029787. PMID26070759. Eating, drinking, sexual activity and parenting invoke pleasure, an emotion that promotes repetition of these behaviors, are essential for survival. Euphoria, a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness, is an amplification of pleasure, aspired to one's essential biological needs that are satisfied. People use party drugs as a shortcut to euphoria. Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), γ-hydroxybutyric acid, and ketamine fall under the umbrella of the term "party drugs," each with differing neuropharmacological and physiological actions.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
^Alcaro A, Panksepp J (2011). "The SEEKING mind: primal neuro-affective substrates for appetitive incentive states and their pathological dynamics in addictions and depression". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 35 (9): 1805–1820. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.03.002. PMID21396397. S2CID6613696. Recent human data have demonstrated that the SEEKING brain circuitry, as predicted, is involved in the emergence of a characteristic appetitive affective state, which may be described as "enthusiastic positive excitement" or "euphoria" (Drevets et al., 2001; Volkow and Swanson, 2003) and that do not resemble any kind of sensory pleasure (Heath, 1996; Panksepp et al., 1985) ... However, in our view, cognitive processes, are only one "slice of the pie", and gamma oscillations may be more globally viewed as the overall emotional–motivational neurodynamics through which the SEEKING disposition is expressed, accompanied by a feeling of excitement/eurphoria (not 'pleasure') that is evolutionarily designed to achieve a diversity of useful outcomes
^"Key DSM-IV Mental Status Exam Phrases" (Content adapted from "Brain Calipers, 2nd Edition, David J. Robinson, MD".). Gateway Psychiatric Services. Mood and Affect. Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
^ abcdefghijkMalenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 191, 350–351, 367–368, 371–375. ISBN9780071481274. Changes in appetite and energy may reflect abnormalities in various hypothalamic nuclei. Depressed mood and anhedonia (lack of interest in pleasurable activities) in depressed individuals, and euphoria and increased involvement in goal-directed activities in patients, who experience mania, may reflect opposing abnormalities in the nucleus accumbens, medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, or other structures. ... Although short-term administration of glucocorticoids often produces euphoria and increased energy, the impact of long-lasting increases in endogenous glucocorticoids produced during depression can involve complex adaptations such as those that occur in Cushing syndrome (Chapter 10). ... Exposure to addictive chemicals not only produces extreme euphoric states that may initially motivate drug use, but also causes equally extreme adaptations in reinforcement mechanisms and motivated behavior that eventually lead to compulsive use. Accordingly, the evolutionary design of human and animal brains that has helped to promote our survival also has made us vulnerable to addiction.
^Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M (March 2012). "Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 44 (1): 38–55. doi:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112. PMC4040958. PMID22641964. Early-stage romantic love can induce euphoria, is a cross-cultural phenomenon, and is possibly a developed form of a mammalian drive to pursue preferred mates. ... Under normal conditions, it is not surprising that sexual activity is physiologically regulated by the reward circuitry of the brain, specifically by dopaminergic pathways (see Figure 1). Moreover, the early stages of a new, romantic relationship can be a powerful and absorbing experience. Individuals in new romantic relationships report feeling euphoric and energetic. They also become emotionally dependent on, desire closeness with, and have highly focused attention on their partner (Reynaud et al. 2010; Young 2009). Human neuroimaging studies have shown that feelings experienced during the early stages of a romantic relationship are associated with neural activations in several reward-system and affect-processing regions of the brain (Young 2009; Aron et al. 2005; Bartels & Zeki 2000; Mashek, Aron & Fisher 2000).
^Jankowiak, William; Paladino, Thomas (2013). "Chapter 1. Desiring Sex, Longing for Love: A Tripartite Conundrum". In Jankowiak, William R. (ed.). Intimacies: Love and Sex Across Cultures. Columbia University Press. p. 13. ISBN9780231508766 – via Google Books. These emotional states may also be manifested behaviorally as "labile psychophysical responses to the loved person, including exhilaration, euphoria, buoyancy, spiritual feelings, increased energy, sleeplessness, loss of appetite, shyness, awkwardness ... in the presence of the loved person" (Fisher 1998:32). The presence of similar neurological mechanisms and brain patterns may account for the ability to readily identify when someone is romantically involved or erotically excited (Fisher 1998:32; Fisher 1995).
^ abKringelbach ML, Berridge KC (2012). "The Joyful Mind"(PDF). Scientific American. 307 (2): 44–45. Bibcode:2012SciAm.307b..40K. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0812-40. PMID22844850. Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017. So it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain – those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations – turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. One of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. A second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... On the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure – like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals – seems to require activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high. Whether the pleasure circuit – and in particular, the ventral pallidum – works the same way in humans is unclear.
^Laycock T (4 January 1862). The Medical Times & Gazette. London: John Churchill. pp. 1. Not unfrequently, indeed, the appearance of the patient is more diagnostic than his feelings. This is the case in some very grave diseases, in which that portion of the nervous system which subserves to the feeling of bodily well-being,—termed, in psychological phrase, euphoria—is morbidly modified as to function. • Laycock T (17 May 1864). The Medical Times & Gazette. London: John Churchill. pp. 500. The morbid hopefulness of phthisis, physiologically termed euphoria, is seen more particularly in this class of patients. I have often called attention to it at the bedside, and shown that it ushers in the last stage. It is really a disease of the nervous system of a low type, a sort of insanity, and is of the worst significance.
^Freud S (1884). Über Coca., cited in, NIDA Research Monograph #13 Siegel RK (1977). "Chapter VI Cocaine: Recreational Use and Intoxication"(PDF). In Petersen RC, Stillman RC (eds.). NIDA Research Monograph #13. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 130. The psychic effect (of cocaine) consists of exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which does not differ in any way from the normal euphoria of a healthy person.... One senses an increase of self-control and feels more vigorous and more capable of work; on the other hand, if one works, one misses the heightening of the mental powers which alcohol, tea, or coffee induce. One is simply normal, and soon finds it difficult to believe that one is under the influence of any drug at all.[permanent dead link]
^Miller R, Dennison J (2015). "Lecture 31". An Outline of Psychiatry in Clinical Lectures: The Lectures of Carl Wernicke. Springer. p. 216. ISBN9783319180519 – via Google books. [R]ational judgment of actual ability is lost, and a feeling of increased capacity arises, … it induces feelings of happiness, to the point of abnormal euphoria; but here too, assuming that some degree of psychic ability prevails, self-awareness of the change in personality may be enabled—an autopsychic paraesthesia in the above sense. Consequently, the Affective state of abnormal euphoria which determines the clinical picture often shows up as transitions to autopsychic disarray.
^"Paris Doctors Say That Scorching is Like Effects of Drugs". Paris Herald. 1903. reprinted in The Boston Daily Globe, 13 May 1903. p. 6
^"Have You Euphoria?". Popular Science. 97 (6): 79. December 1920 – via Google books. It takes a doctor to give a high-sounding name to a well known phenomenon. "Euphoria" means "feeling fit." It is as much a physiological fact as scarlet fever. Nature makes it worth while to be alive simply through euphoria. The joy of making a good tennis stroke, the delight that a Woodsman gets in the open air, the artist's rhapsody—all are due to euphoria. Why do we drink alcohol—when we can get it or smoke tobacco? To affect euphoria. When a lunatic thinks that he is Napoleon and demands the homage due an emperor; he has euphoria in its worst form. Too little is known about euphoria. Since it can be affected by drugs and chemicals, who knows but it may have its seat in some gland?
^Woodworth, RS (1921). "Chapter VII: Emotion: Various organic states, and the conscious states that go with them". Psychology, a study of mental life. New York: Henry Holt and Company. pp. 119–120. Retrieved 16 April 2017 – via Internet archive. Something was said before about "organic states", under the general head of tendencies to reaction. Fatigue was an example. Now we could include fatigue under the term, "stirred-up state of the organism"; at least, if not precisely "stirred-up", it is uneasy. It is a deviation from the normal or neutral state. Also, it is often a conscious state, as when we speak of the "tired feeling"; not a purely cognitive state, either not simply a recognition of the fact that we are fatigued but a state of disinclination to work any longer. Though fatigue is thus so much like an emotion that it fits under our definition, it is not called an emotion, but a sensation or complex of sensations.... Many other organic states are akin to emotion in the same way. The opposite of fatigue, the "warmed-up" condition, brought on by a certain amount of activity after rest, is a case in point. It is a deviation from the average or neutral condition, in the direction of greater readiness for activity. The warmed-up person feels ready for business, full of "ginger" or "pep" in short, full of life. The name "euphoria", which means about the same as "feeling good", is given to this condition. Drowsiness is another of these emotion-like states; but hunger and thirst are as typical examples as any.
^Bousfield WA (1940). "The Relation of the Euphoric Attitude to the Quality of Sleep". The Journal of Psychology. 9 (2): 393–401. doi:10.1080/00223980.1940.9917707. Euphoria is a term aptly denoting the state of general well being, and while it involves a relatively enduring and pleasantly toned feeling, its psychological significance derives primarily from its being a semi-emotional attitude of considerable determining power.
^Keats AS, Beecher HK (1952). "Analgesic activity and toxic effects of acetylmethadol isomers in man". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 105 (2): 210–215. ISSN0022-3565. PMID14928223. Archived from the original on 22 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016. [Footnote 3] Since matters of some interest hang upon the definition of 'euphoria', direct enquiry of Dr. Isbell brought the following comment (letter of November 1, 1951). 'I think it would be wise to exercise a certain degree of care in our use of the term "euphoria". We use it here in the sense of a train of effects similar to those seen after the administration of morphine. These effects include changes in behavior and objective signs, such as constriction of the pupil, depression of the respiratory rate and volume, drop in rectal temperature, etc. We do not use it in the sense of "feeling of well-being", as this is something that I have been utterly unable to evaluate.' The present authors prefer to limit the definition of euphoria to 'a sense of well-being'. • Isbell H, Vogel VH (1949). "The addiction liability of methadon (amidone, dolophine, 10820) and its use in the treatment of the morphine abstinence syndrome". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 105 (12): 909–914. doi:10.1176/ajp.105.12.909. ISSN0002-953X. PMID18127077. • Jaffe JH, Jaffe FK (1989). "4. Historical Perspectives on the Use of Subjective Effects Measures in Assessing the Abuse Potential of Drugs". In Fischman MW, Mello NK (eds.). Testing for Abuse Liability of Drugs in Humans. National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Vol. 92. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
^Leigh D, Pare CM, Marks J (1977). A Concise Encyclopaedia of Psychiatry. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 152. ISBN9789401159135 – via Google books. A mood of contentment and wellbeing. Euphoria in psychiatric terms always has a pathological connotation and is often an important early sign of organic cerebral disease. It differs from elation in subtle but important ways. It has no infectious quality and no element of gaiety, for its bland contentment is based on lack of awareness and inability to experience sadness or anxiety rather than on anything positive. It may be seen in any condition involving extensive cerebral damage, particularly if the frontal lobes are involved. It occurs sooner or later in senile and arteriosclerotic dementias (q.v.), in disseminated sclerosis and in Huntington's chorea (q.v.) and is often seen also after severe head injury and old-fashioned forms of leucotomy (q.v.). Euphoria is sometimes seen in Addison's disease (q.v.).
^"definition of euphoria in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016. a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness •"definition of euphoria". Dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016. a state of intense happiness and self-confidence (psychology) a feeling of happiness, confidence, or well-being sometimes exaggerated in pathological states as mania • Sadock B, Sadock V (2009). Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (9th ed.). pp. 411–412, 923. Refers to a persistent and unrealistic sense of well-being, without the increased mental or motor rate of mania. Exaggerated feeling of well-being that is inappropriate to real events. Can occur with drugs such as opiates, amphetamines, and alcohol. •Mosby's Medical Dictionary (8th ed.). 2009. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2016. 1. a feeling or state of well-being or elation. 2. an exaggerated or abnormal sense of physical and emotional well-being not based on reality or truth, disproportionate to its cause, and inappropriate to the situation, as commonly seen in the manic stage of bipolar disorder, some forms of schizophrenia, organic mental disorders, and toxic and drug-induced states
^Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC4491543. PMID26109341. The feeling of high that is experienced by sports people during running or swimming, the lust evoked by encountering a ready mating partner, a sexual orgasm, the euphoria reported by drug users, and the parental affection to babies constitute different forms (qualities) rather than degrees of pleasure (quantities).
^ abSalimpoor VN, Benovoy M, Larcher K, Dagher A, Zatorre RJ (2011). "Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music". Nat. Neurosci. 14 (2): 257–262. doi:10.1038/nn.2726. PMID21217764. S2CID205433454. Music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system. ... the caudate was more involved during the anticipation and the nucleus accumbens was more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. ... Notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself.
^ abcMavridis IN (March 2015). "Music and the nucleus accumbens". Surg Radiol Anat. 37 (2): 121–125. doi:10.1007/s00276-014-1360-0. PMID25102783. S2CID25768771. The functional connectivity between brain regions mediating reward, autonomic and cognitive processing provides insight into understanding why listening to music is one of the most rewarding and pleasurable human experiences. Musical stimuli can significantly increase extracellular DA levels in the NA. NA DA and serotonin were found significantly higher in animals exposed to music. Finally, passive listening to unfamiliar although liked music showed activations in the NA. ... Music can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal DAergic system [16]. Reward value for music can be coded by activity levels in the NA, whose functional connectivity with auditory and frontal areas increases as a function of increasing musical reward [19]. ... Listening to pleasant music induces a strong response and significant activation of the VTA-mediated interaction of the NA with the hypothalamus, insula and orbitofrontal cortex [1]. Conclusions Listening to music strongly modulates activity in a network of mesolimbic structures involved in reward processing including the NA. Music, acting as a positive pleasant emotion, increases NA DAergic activity. Specifically the NA is more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. Reward value of music can be predicted by increased functional connectivity of auditory cortices, amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal regions with the NA. Further research is needed to improve our understanding of the NA role in the influence of music in our lives.
^ abcZatorre RJ (March 2015). "Musical pleasure and reward: mechanisms and dysfunction". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1337 (1): 202–211. Bibcode:2015NYASA1337..202Z. doi:10.1111/nyas.12677. PMID25773636. S2CID22212386. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 19 October 2019. Most people derive pleasure from music. Neuroimaging studies show that the reward system of the human brain is central to this experience. Specifically, the dorsal and ventral striatum release dopamine when listening to pleasurable music, and activity in these structures also codes the reward value of musical excerpts. Moreover, the striatum interacts with cortical mechanisms involved in perception and valuation of musical stimuli. ... Development of a questionnaire for music reward experiences has allowed the identification of separable factors associated with musical pleasure, described as music-seeking, emotion-evocation, mood regulation, sensorimotor, and social factors. Applying this questionnaire to a large sample uncovered approximately 5% of the population with low sensitivity to musical reward in the absence of generalized anhedonia or depression. Further study of this group revealed that there are individuals who respond normally both behaviorally and psychophysiologically to rewards other than music (e.g., monetary value) but do not experience pleasure from music despite normal music perception ability and preserved ability to identify intended emotions in musical passages.
^ abFerreri L, Mas-Herrero E, Zatorre RJ, Ripollés P, Gomez-Andres A, Alicart H, Olivé G, Marco-Pallarés J, Antonijoan RM, Valle M, Riba J, Rodriguez-Fornells A (January 2019). "Dopamine modulates the reward experiences elicited by music". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (9): 3793–3798. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.3793F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1811878116. PMC6397525. PMID30670642. Listening to pleasurable music is often accompanied by measurable bodily reactions such as goose bumps or shivers down the spine, commonly called "chills" or "frissons." ... Overall, our results straightforwardly revealed that pharmacological interventions bidirectionally modulated the reward responses elicited by music. In particular, we found that risperidone impaired participants' ability to experience musical pleasure, whereas levodopa enhanced it. ... Here, in contrast, studying responses to abstract rewards in human subjects, we show that manipulation of dopaminergic transmission affects both the pleasure (i.e., amount of time reporting chills and emotional arousal measured by EDA) and the motivational components of musical reward (money willing to spend). These findings suggest that dopaminergic signaling is a sine qua non condition not only for motivational responses, as has been shown with primary and secondary rewards, but also for hedonic reactions to music. This result supports recent findings showing that dopamine also mediates the perceived pleasantness attained by other types of abstract rewards (37) and challenges previous findings in animal models on primary rewards, such as food (42, 43). Ferreri, Laura; Mas-Herrero, Ernest; Zatorre, Robert J.; Ripollés, Pablo; Gomez-Andres, Alba; Alicart, Helena; Olivé, Guillem; Marco-Pallarés, Josep; Antonijoan, Rosa M.; Valle, Marta; Riba, Jordi; Rodriguez-Fornells, Antoni (24 January 2019). "Dopamine Modulates Reward Experiences Elicited by Music". Neuroscience News. 116 (9): 3793–3798. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.3793F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1811878116. PMC6397525. PMID30670642.
^ abGoupil L, Aucouturier JJ (February 2019). "Musical pleasure and musical emotions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (9): 3364–3366. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.3364G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900369116. PMC6397567. PMID30770455. In a pharmacological study published in PNAS, Ferreri et al. (1) present evidence that enhancing or inhibiting dopamine signaling using levodopa or risperidone modulates the pleasure experienced while listening to music. ... In a final salvo to establish not only the correlational but also the causal implication of dopamine in musical pleasure, the authors have turned to directly manipulating dopaminergic signaling in the striatum, first by applying excitatory and inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation over their participants' left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region known to modulate striatal function (5), and finally, in the current study, by administrating pharmaceutical agents able to alter dopamine synaptic availability (1), both of which influenced perceived pleasure, physiological measures of arousal, and the monetary value assigned to music in the predicted direction. ... While the question of the musical expression of emotion has a long history of investigation, including in PNAS (6), and the 1990s psychophysiological strand of research had already established that musical pleasure could activate the autonomic nervous system (7), the authors' demonstration of the implication of the reward system in musical emotions was taken as inaugural proof that these were veridical emotions whose study has full legitimacy to inform the neurobiology of our everyday cognitive, social, and affective functions (8). Incidentally, this line of work, culminating in the article by Ferreri et al. (1), has plausibly done more to attract research funding for the field of music sciences than any other in this community. The evidence of Ferreri et al. (1) provides the latest support for a compelling neurobiological model in which musical pleasure arises from the interaction of ancient reward/valuation systems (striatal–limbic–paralimbic) with more phylogenetically advanced perception/predictions systems (temporofrontal).
^Goldstein A, Hansteen RW (1977). "Evidence against involvement of endorphins in sexual arousal and orgasm in man". Archives of General Psychiatry. 34 (10): 1179–1180. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1977.01770220061006. PMID199128.
^Cox S, Ullah M, Zoellner H (2016). "Oral and Systemic Health Effects of Compulsive Areca Nut Use". In Preedy VR (ed.). Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse Volume 3: General Processes and Mechanisms, Prescription Medications, Caffeine and Areca, Polydrug Misuse, Emerging Addictions and Non-Drug Addictions. Academic Press. p. 791. ISBN9780128006771. The areca nut is the fourth most used drug after nicotine, alcohol, and caffeine. The effects are described as pleasurable and generally stimulating, inducing a sense of well-being, euphoria, heightened alertness, a warm sensation throughout the body, and an increased capacity to work.
^ abGarg A, Chaturvedi P, Gupta PC (June 2014). "A review of the systemic adverse effects of areca nut or betel nut". Indian Journal of Medical and Paediatric Oncology. 35 (1): 3–9. doi:10.4103/0971-5851.133702. PMC4080659. PMID25006276. It is one of the most widely consumed addictive substances in the world after nicotine, ethanol and caffeine, and is consumed by approximately 10% of the world's population.... The users of areca nut believe that it is helpful for the digestive system and has mild euphoric effects. ... The major parasympathetic and muscarinic effects of areca nut are due to arecoline.
^Riviere JE, Papich MG (2013). Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 165. ISBN9781118685907. Pilocarpine, arecoline and muscarine are rather selective parasympathetic agents; i.e., their cholinomimetic activity is exerted primarily at muscarinic sites with minimal nicotinic effects.
^Peng W, Liu YJ, Wu N, Sun T, He XY, Gao YX, Wu CJ (April 2015). "Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae): a review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 164: 340–56. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2015.02.010. ISSN1872-7573. PMID25681543. Previous investigations indicated that the arecaidine and guvacine isolated from the A. catechu are effective antagonists of GABA, with IC50 values 122712 μM and 871 μM, respectively (Johnston et al., 1975; Lodge et al., 1977).
^Aronson, J. K. (2009). Meyler's Side Effects of Herbal Medicines. Elsevier. p. 53. ISBN9780444532695. The lime in the betel quid [areca nut, lime and Piper betle leaves] causes hydrolysis of arecoline to arecailide, a central nervous stimulant, which accounts, together with the essential oil of the betel pepper, for the eucphoric effects of chewing betel quid.
^ abcMartinotti G, Papazisis G, Santacroce R, Kouvelas D, Cinosi E, Lupi M, di Giannantonio M (2016). "Pregabalin Abuse and Addiction". In Preedy VR (ed.). Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse Volume 3: General Processes and Mechanisms, Prescription Medications, Caffeine and Areca, Polydrug Misuse, Emerging Addictions and Non-Drug Addictions. London: Academic Press. pp. 948–949. ISBN9780128006771. Exceeding the therapeutic doses, pregabalin is described as an 'ideal psychotropic drug' for recreational purposes, including alcohol/GHB/benzodiazepine-like effects, euphoria, entactogenic feelings, and dissociation. ... Up to 1200mg ... euphoria ... Over 1500mg ... intense euphoria
^ abSchjerning O, Rosenzweig M, Pottegård A, Damkier P, Nielsen J (January 2016). "Abuse Potential of Pregabalin: A Systematic Review"(PDF). CNS Drugs. 30 (1): 9–25. doi:10.1007/s40263-015-0303-6. ISSN1179-1934. PMID26767525. S2CID3800377. Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 August 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017. Pregabalin is, in some cases, used for recreational purposes and it has incurred attention among drug abusers for causing euphoric and dissociative effects when taken in doses exceeding normal therapeutic dosages or used by alternative routes of administration, such as nasal insufflation or venous injection.
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^Dahl J, Lundgren TL (2007). "Conditioning mechanisms, behavior technology, and contextual behavior therapy". In Holmes GL, Schachter SC, Kasteleijn-Nolst Trenite DGA (eds.). Behavioral Aspects of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice. Demos Medical Publishing. p. 248. ISBN9781934559888. [S]eizures themselves may be stimulating or may induce euphoria. Dostoyevsky describes his seizure experience as follows 'the air was filled with a big noise and I tried to move. I felt the heaven was going down upon the earth and that it had engulfed me. I have really touched God. He came into me myself. Yes, God exists. I cried, and I don't remember anything else. You all, healthy people ... can't imagine the happiness we epileptics feel during the second before our fit ... I don't know if this felicity lasts for seconds, hours, or months but believe me, for all the joys that life may bring, I would not exchange this one'. [emphasis added]
^Kanner AM (2011). "Peri-ictal psychiatric phenomena". In Trimble MR, Schmitz B (eds.). The Neuropsychiatry of Epilepsy. Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN9781139497893. The classic expression of an ictal psychiatric symptom is an "aura," presenting as feelings of fear, sadness, or euphoria.
^Gschwind M, Picard F (January 2016). "Ecstatic Epileptic Seizures: A Glimpse into the Multiple Roles of the Insula". Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 10: 21. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00021. PMC4756129. PMID26924970. In a table listing cases of ecstatic seizures reported in the literature, descriptions include: "Euphoric and talkative", "calm euphoria", "Pleasant feeling, euphoria", "Pleasant feeling, and feels euphoria", "short euphoric states"; others are within the definition of euphoria: "Sudden feeling of extreme well-being", "Ineffable joy. Intense pleasure without match in reality (perhaps music)", "Extreme happiness", "intense (non-sexual) pleasure", "Intense happy feeling", "Sudden indescribably pleasant and joyous feeling", "Sensation of intense well-being", "Intense pleasant feeling", "Intense feelings of bliss and well-being".
^Levenson JL, ed. (2011). "Neurology and Neurosurgery". The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychosomatic Medicine: Psychiatric Care of the Medically Ill. American Psychiatric Publishing. p. 777. ISBN9781585623792.
^Engel J (2013). Seizures and Epilepsy. Oxford University Press. pp. 332, 383. ISBN9780195328547. Archived from the original on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2017. Patients who are aware of increased depression or tension prior to generalized tonic-clonic or limbic seizures occasionally report a feeling of euphoria or release during the postictal period.... [P]atients with interictal or preictal depression can report relief or euphoria postictally, which is consistent with the well-known beneficial effect of electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT). Postictal hypomania can occur, particularly after repeated limbic seizures.
^ abDodick DW, Silberstein SD (2016). Migraine (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 2, 15. ISBN9780199793693. More than 70% of migraineurs experience premonitory phenomena hours to days before headache onset. Psychological symptoms include anxiety, depression, euphoria, irritability, restlessness, mental slowness, hyperactivity, fatigue, and drowsiness. Following the headache, the patient may have impaired concentration or feel tired, washed out, irritable, and listless. Some people, however, feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack. [emphasis added]
^Green MW, Colman R (2015). "6. Complicated Migraine". In Diamond S (ed.). Headache and Migraine Biology and Management. Academic Press. p. 51. ISBN9780128011621. [P]remonitory symptoms can occur hours to a day or more prior to a migraine attack (with or without aura). Prodromal symptoms include various combinations of fatigue, stiff neck, sensitivity to light or sounds, difficulty in concentrating, depression or euphoria, cold hands and feet, blurred vision, yawning, nausea and pallor. [emphasis added]
^ abWalling AD (2013). "63. Headache". In Taylor RB (ed.). Family Medicine: Principles and Practice (6th ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 532. ISBN9780387217444. Patients in the 'classic' subgroup (approximately 20% of all migrainers) experience a characteristic aura before the onset of migraine head pain.... A much larger proportion of patients describe prodromal symptoms, which may be visceral, such as diarrhea or nausea, but are more commonly alterations in mood or behavior. Food cravings, mild euphoria (conversely, yawning), and heightened sensory perception, particularly of smell, are surprisingly common.... The attack often terminates with sleep.... Many patients report a 'hangover' on waking after a migraine, but others report complete freedom from symptoms and a sense of euphoria. [emphasis added]
