A city dating back to ancient times, settled by the Celts and the Romans, it was made an episcopal see in early medieval Hungary. It has the oldest university in the country, and is one of its major cultural centers. It has a rich cultural heritage from the age of a 150-year Ottoman occupation. It is historically a multi-ethnic city where many cultures have interacted through 2,000 years of history. In recent times, it has been recognized for its cultural heritage, including being named as one of the European Capital of Culture cities. The Roman-era Christian necropolis in Pécs was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 2000.
Name
The earliest name for the territory was its Roman name of Sopianæ. The name possibly comes from the plural of the Celtic sop meaning "marsh".[citation needed]
The medieval city was first mentioned in 871 under the name Quinque Basilicae ("five cathedrals".) The name refers to the fact that when constructing the churches of the city, the builders used material from five old Christian chapels. In later Latin documents the city was mentioned as Quinque Ecclesiae ("five churches", a name identical in meaning to the German name Fünfkirchen and the Slovak name Päťkostolie[3]).
The name Pécs appears in documents in 1235 in the word Pechyut (with modern spelling: pécsi út, meaning "road to/from Pécs") most likely derives from the Proto-Slavic*pęčь or from the Illyrian*penče, both meaning five.[4] In other languages: in Latin, Quinque Ecclesiae; in Italian, Cinquechiese; in Croatian, Pečuh; in Serbian, Печуј (Pečuj); in Slovak, Päťkostolie; in Czech, Pětikostelí; in Dutch, Vijfkerken; in German, Fünfkirchen; and in Turkish, Peçuy.
Geography
Pécs is located in the Carpathian Basin of Central Europe, in the center of the southern Hungarian county of Baranya. It is bordered by the Mecsek hills to the north, and by a rolling plain to the south. Pécs has a significant mining past. Mecsek dolomitic water is famous for its steady, balanced high density of minerals.
The city of Pécs is located near the border of Croatia. Its southern part is rather flat whereas its northern part clings to the slope of the Mecsek mountains. It has a very favorable climate, and is bordered by a flourishing woody area. During hot summer nights a cooling air streams down from Mecsek to clean the air of the city.[5]
Pécs is bordered by plains to the south (elevation 120–130 m), while the Mecsek mountains rise up to elevations of 400–600 meters behind the city. Jakab-hill, located in the western Mecsek, is 592 m (1942 ft) tall, Tubes, straight above Pécs, is 612 m (2008 ft) tall, and Misina is 535 m (1755 ft) tall.[6] Higher parts of the city climb up to 200–250 m (656 to 820 ft), mainly Pécsbánya, Szabolcsfalu, Vasas and Somogy. Woody areas generally start from elevations of about 300 m (984 ft). The Mecsek hills are marked by numerous valleys which play a key role in ameliorating the climate of the city in the absence of lakes and rivers. Waters coming down from the Mecsek hills flow into the Pécsi stream under the east–west rail road leading them eventually to the Danube.
The area has been inhabited since ancient times, with the oldest archaeological findings being 6,000 years old. Before the Roman era, the area was inhabited by Celts.
The city of Sopianae was founded by Romans at the beginning of the 2nd century, in an area peopled by Celts and Pannoni tribes.
In the early 2nd century, when much of western Hungary was a province of the Roman Empire named Pannonia, the Romans founded several wine-producing colonies under the collective name of Sopianae where Pécs now stands.
The centre of Sopianae was where the Bishop's Palace now stands. Some parts of the Roman aqueduct are still visible. When the Roman province of Pannonia was divided into four administrative divisions, Sopianae was named the capital of the division named Valeria.
By the 4th century, Sopianae became the capital of Valeria province and a significant early Christian center. The early Christian necropolis in the city dates back to this era, and the Christian tombs there are unique in their architectural design (with underground burial chambers below above-ground memorial chapels) and are highly decorated with Christian murals.[7] These tombs became a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in December 2000.[8] By the end of the century, Roman rule weakened in the area, mostly due to attacks by Barbarians and Huns.
A document written in Salzburg in 871 is the first document mentioning the early medieval city under the name Quinque Basilicae.[3] During the 9th century, the city was inhabited by Slavs and Avars, and was part of the Balaton Principality, a Frankish vassal state.[9]
The Hungarian city in the Middle Ages
The BarbakánCrypt of the cathedral from the Middle AgesStone shield pattern of Pécs with Old Hungarian script (circa 1250 AD)
According to György Györffy's theory of place names, after the Hungarians conquered the Carpathian Basin, they retained a semi-nomadic lifestyle, changing pastures between winter and summer. Árpád's winter quarters – clearly after his occupation of Pannonia in 900 – were perhaps in Pécs.[9] Later, when the Comitatus of Baranya was established, the capital of the comitatus was not Pécs but a nearby castle, Baranyavár ('Baranya Castle'). Pécs, however, became an important religious centre and episcopal seat. In Latin documents, the city was mentioned as Quinque Ecclesiae. Around 1000, the area was inhabited by the Black Magyars. The Deed of Foundation of the Diocese of Pécs was issued in 1009.
Peter Orseolo, the second king of Hungary, was buried in the cathedral in 1046. The location of his grave is unknown. This is because in 1064, when King Solomon made peace with his cousin, the later King Géza I, they celebrated Easter in Pécs. Shortly after the cathedral burnt down. The cathedral that stands today was built after this, in the second half of the 11th century.
Several religious orders settled down in Pécs. The Benedictine order was the first in 1076. In 1181, there was already a hospital in the city. The first Dominican monastery of the country was built in Pécs in 1238.
King Louis the Great founded a university in Pécs in 1367 following the advice of William, the bishop of Pécs, who was also the king's chancellor. It was the first university in Hungary. The founding document is almost word for word identical with that of the University of Vienna, stating that the university has the right to teach all arts and sciences, with the exception of theology.
In 1459, Janus Pannonius, the most important medieval poet of Hungary became the bishop of Pécs. He strengthened the cultural importance of the city.
Pécs was formed into one of the cultural and arts center of the country by bishop Janus Pannonius, great humanist poet.[12]
After the Battle of Mohács (1526) in which the invading Ottoman army defeated the armies of King Louis II, the armies of Suleiman occupied Pécs. Not only was a large part of the country occupied by Ottomans, the public opinion of who should be the king of Hungary was divided, too. One party supported Ferdinand of Habsburg, the other party crowned John Zápolya in Székesfehérvár.[citation needed] The citizens of Pécs supported Ferdinand, but the rest of Baranya county supported John. In the summer of 1527, Ferdinand defeated the armies of Szapolyai and was crowned king on November 3. Ferdinand favoured the city because of the support of its citizens, and exempted Pécs from paying taxes. Pécs was rebuilt and fortified.[citation needed]
In 1529, the Ottomans captured Pécs again, and went on a campaign against Vienna. The Ottomans forced Pécs to accept King John (who was allied with them) as their ruler. John died in 1540. In 1541, the Ottomans occupied the castle of Buda, and ordered Isabella, the widow of John to give Pécs to them, since the city was of strategic importance.[citation needed] The citizens of Pécs defended the city against the Ottomans, and swore loyalty to Ferdinand.[citation needed] The emperor helped the city and defended it from further Ottoman attacks, but his advisers persuaded him into focusing more on the cities of Székesfehérvár and Esztergom instead of Pécs. Pécs was preparing for the siege, but a day before, Flemish and Walloon mercenaries fled from the city, and raided the nearby lands. The next day in June 1543 the Bishop himself went to the Ottomans with the keys of the city.[citation needed]
After occupying the city, the Ottomans fortified it and turned it into a real Ottoman city. The Christian churches were turned into mosques; Turkish baths and minarets were built, Qur'an schools were founded, there was a bazaar in place of the market.[citation needed] For a hundred years the city was an island of peace in a land of war. It was a sanjak centre in Budin Eyalet at first and Kanije Eyalet later as "Peçuy".
The Ottoman chronicler İbrahim Peçevi (Ibrahim of Pécs), whose work forms the main body of reference for Ottoman history between 1520 and 1640, was a native of the city.[13]
In 1664, Croat-Hungarian nobleman Nicholas Zrínyi arrived in Pécs, with his army. Since the city was well into the Ottoman territories, they knew that even if they occupy it, they could not keep it for long, so they planned only to pillage it. They ravaged and burned the city but could not occupy the castle. Mediaeval Pécs was destroyed forever, except the wall encircling the historical city, a single bastion (Barbakán), the network of tunnels and catacombs beneath the city, parts of which are closed down, other parts are in possession of the famous Litke champagne factory, and can be visited today. [citation needed] Several Turkish artifacts also survived, namely three mosques, two minarets, remnants of a bath over the ancient Christian tombs near the cathedral, and several houses, one even with a stone cannonball embedded in the wall.[citation needed]
After the castle of Buda was wrested from Ottoman rule in 1686, the armies went to capture the rest of Pécs. The advance guards could break into the city and pillaged it.[citation needed] The Ottomans saw that they could not hold the city, and burnt it, and withdrew into the castle. The army led by Louis of Baden occupied the city on 14 October and destroyed the aqueduct leading to the castle. The Ottomans had no other choice but to surrender, which they did on 22 October (see Siege of Pécs).
The city was under martial law under the command of Karl von Thüngen. The Viennese court wanted to destroy the city first, but later they decided to keep it to counterbalance the importance of Szigetvár, which was still under Ottoman rule. Slowly the city started to prosper again, but in the 1690s two plague epidemics claimed many lives. In 1688 German settlers arrived. Only about one-quarter of the city's population was Hungarian, the others were Germans or Southern Slavs. Census of taxpayers from 1698 lists 637 families for which Janja Živković Mandić concludes that 308 were of Croatian nationality (Catholics Croats, Racs, Šokci, Bunjevci, Illyrians, Slavs, Bosniaks) and the remaining 329 were Hungarians, Germans, Serbs or Greeks. According to same census István Tabo mentions 171 Hungarian, 349 Slavs and 79 Germans while Đuro Šarošac mentions that at that time in the city lived 325 Croats, 139 Hungarians, 92 Germans, 53 Vlachs and 28 Serbs.[14] According to 1698 data, South Slavs comprised more than half of the population of the town. Because Hungarians were only a minority of the population, Pécs did not support the revolution against Habsburg rule led by Francis II Rákóczi, and his armies pillaged the city in 1704.
Pécs Main Square before 2009County Hall of BaranyaVasváry-HouseSzéchenyi Square
A more peaceful era started after 1710. Industry, trade and viticulture prospered, manufactories were founded, a new city hall was built. The feudal lord of the city was the Bishop of Pécs, but the city wanted to free itself from episcopal control. Bishop George Klimó, an enlightened man (who founded the first public library of the country) would have agreed to cede his rights to the city, but the Holy See forbade him to do so. When Klimó died in 1777, Queen Maria Theresa quickly elevated Pécs to free royal town status before the new bishop was elected. This cost the city 83,315 forints.
According to the first census (held in 1787 by the order of Joseph II), there were 1,474 houses and 1,834 families in Pécs, a total of 8,853 residents, of which 133 were priests and 117 were noblemen.
In 1785, the Academy of Győr was moved to Pécs. This academy eventually evolved into a law school. The first stonework theatre of the city was built in 1839.
At that time or Maria Theresia and her son Josef II, the Danube Swabians from Germany was settled in the City.
19th century and later
The industry developed a lot in the second half of the 19th century. By 1848, there were 1,739 industrial workers. Some of the manufactures were nationally famous. The iron and paper factories were among the most modern ones of the age. Coal mining was relevant. A sugar factory and beer manufactures were built, too. The city had 14,616 residents.
During the revolution in 1848–49, Pécs was occupied by Croatian armies for a short time, but it was freed from them by Habsburg armies in January 1849.
After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Pécs developed, like all the other cities and towns of the country. From 1867, Pécs is connected to the nearby town Barcs by railway, and since 1882 it is also connected to Budapest. In 1913, a tram system has been founded, but it was extinguished in 1960.
At the end of World War I, Baranya county was occupied by Serbian troops, and it was not until August 1921 that Pécs could be sure that it remains part of Hungary. The University of Pressburg (modern-day Bratislava, Slovakia) was moved to Pécs after Hungary lost Pressburg according to the Treaty of Trianon.
During World War II, Pécs was captured by Soviet troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front on 29 November 1944 in the course of the Budapest Offensive. The city suffered only minor damages, even though a large tank-battle took place 20–25 kilometres (12–16 miles) south of the city, close to the Villány area late in the war, when the advancing Red Army fought its way towards Austria. Until the end of World War II, the majority Inhabitants was Danube Swabians. Some of the former German settlers was expelled to Germany and Austria in 1945-1948, under the 1945 Potsdam Agreement.[15]Germans of Hungary are still a minority in the City.
A history of Hungary from 1945-1990, "under Soviet domination" can be found in A Concise History of Hungary.[16] After the war, development became fast again, and the city grew, absorbing several nearby towns. In the 1980s, Pécs already had 180,000 inhabitants.
Historical population
Year
Pop.
±%
1870
30,821
—
1890
43,869
+42.3%
1900
53,721
+22.5%
1910
60,237
+12.1%
1920
58,808
−2.4%
1930
74,395
+26.5%
1941
88,473
+18.9%
1949
88,302
−0.2%
1960
114,655
+29.8%
1970
149,253
+30.2%
1980
168,715
+13.0%
1990
170,039
+0.8%
2001
162,489
−4.4%
2011
156,049
−4.0%
2022
139,647
−10.5%
After the end of Socialist era (1989–1990), Pécs and its county, like many other areas, were hit hard by the changes, the unemployment rate was high, the mines and several factories were closed, and the war in neighboring Yugoslavia in the 1990s affected the tourism.
Pécs was also the centre of the Nordic Support Group (NSG) consisting of units from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Poland, as part of the IFOR and later SFORNATO deployments, after the Dayton Agreement and following peace in former Yugoslavia; the first units were deployed to Pécs in late 1995 and early 1996. The NSG handled the relaying of supply, personnel and other logistical tasks between the participating countries and their deployed forces in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
In 1998 Pécs was given the UNESCO prize "Cities for Peace" for maintaining its cultural minorities, and also for its tolerant and helping attitude toward refugees of the Yugoslav Wars.[17]
In 2007 Pécs was third, and in 2008 it was second "Livable City" (The LivCom Awards)[18] in the category of cities between 75,000 and 200,000 inhabitants.[19]
In 2010, Pécs was selected to be the European Capital of Culture alongside Essen and Istanbul. The city motto is "The Borderless City". After receiving the title major renewal started in the city.[20][21] Renewed public places, streets, squares and neighbourhoods, new cultural centers, a concert hall, a new library and center and a cultural quarter were designed.[22][23]
Main sights
Cella SeptichoraThe BarbakánThe cross at TettyeZsolnay Museum. The House from the 13th Century.National Theatre in Pécs.Csontváry MuseumLyceum Church in Király Street
A good example of the city's history and interesting past can be seen in the main square, where the Gazi Kasim Mosque still stands, and, although consecrated as a church following the retreat of the Ottoman Turks centuries ago, the crescent moon of Islam is still visible on the cupola, surmounted by a cross. Indeed, Pécs is the richest town in Hungary in terms of Turkish architecture, with the ruins of Memi Pasa's Baths and the mausoleum of miracle worker Idris Baba, just two other notable remains. The Yakovalı Hasan Paşa Mosque, dating from the mid-1600s, still functions as an active mosque today. It is open to the public except during Friday services from 2.30 to 3.30 pm.
The majority of the citizens with 84.0% are Hungarians according to the 2011 census. The city's Germans are the largest minority with 4.2%. Followed by the Roma (2.0%), the Croats (1.2%) and the Romanians (0.2%).[2]
The largest religious group is the Catholics with 39.7% Roman Catholic and 0.3% Greek Catholic. The second largest denomination is the Calvinists (5.2%), the third the Lutherans (1.3%). 27.8% of the population is non-religious.[2]
Due to the number of international students studying and living in Pécs, a notable diversity of non-permanent citizens could be obviously seen around the city.
Climate
Pécs's climate is classified as humid subtropical climate (KöppenCfa). Among them, the annual average temperature is 11.5 °C (52.7 °F), the hottest months are July and August with 30.0 °C (86.0 °F), and the coldest month is January with 0.4 °C (32.7 °F). The annual precipitation is 670.9 millimetres (26.41 in), of which June is the wettest with 82.8 millimetres (3.26 in), while January is the driest with only 31.2 millimetres (1.23 in). The extreme temperature throughout the year ranged from −27.0 °C (−16.6 °F) on January 23, 1942 to 41.3 °C (106.3 °F) on July 7, 1950.[24]
Climate data for Pécs, 1991−2020 normals, extremes 1901-2020
Source 2: HungaroMet (Extremes)[24] Hong Kong Observatory (sun 1961-1990)[26]
Economy
The most known product of Pécs is the Zsolnay Porcelain - Alhambra vase by Tádé Sikorski (1884)
Historically Pécs was well known in Hungary for its industry with several factories, but after the fall of the Iron Curtain many have not managed the economic transition well and went bankrupt (e.g. Pécsi Kesztyűgyár, Pécsi Bőrgyár, Littke Pezsgőgyár etc.).[27] Until some years ago, it had a coal and uranium mine, now only its sand mine exists and is operated by the Hungarian-owned Quartz[28] mining company.
The nationally (and to a limited extent internationally) famous porcelain factory, the Zsolnay Porcelain is the greatest pride of Pécs. The walls and roofs of several public and private buildings in the city are decorated with the company's porcelains contributing to Pécs's unique cityscape.
The Hungarian textilmanufacturer Rovitex Hungária,[30] the American crane manufacturer Terex,[31] the Hungarian scale manufacturer Pécsi Mérlegstúdió,[32] the Hungarian furniture manufacturer Megyeri Bútor,[33] the Hungarian cutting-tool manufacturer FORSZ,[34] the German switchboard manufacturer HB-Kapcsolószekrénygyártó (part of the Bader Gruppe),[35] the Hungarian recycling company Alcufer,[36] the Hungarian agricultural vehiclemanufacturer HIDROT,[37] the Hungarian animal husbandry tool manufacturer Önitató,[38] the tobacco factory Pécsi Dohánygyár (owned by British American Tobacco), the Hungarian automotive spare parts manufacturer Matro,[39] the Hungarian safe manufacturer Strauss Metal,[40] the Hungarian packaging machine manufacturer SOMAPAK,[41] the Hungarian plastics producer Termoplast,[42] the Bocz Printing House,[43] the Hungarian pickles manufacturer Babina,[44] the Hungarian plastic product manufacturer Karsai Pécs,[45] the Hungarian metal manufacturer Riner Metal[46] based there and have their production facilities in the city.
There is a gradual development of modern high-tech industry, with Finnish electronics manufacturing company Elcoteq the largest industrial employer in the city, the Hungarian Z Elektronika[47] electronics manufacturer and the Hungarian TG Netcom[48] IT network manufacturer.
The German transportation company, Dachser has a logistics centre in Pécs.[49]
The Biokom[50] waste management and recycling company (owned by the city) is responsible for the transport and recycling of waste in the whole territory of Pécs and the surrounding areas. The energy used in the settlement is produced mainly by the two biomass power plants of Pannonpower (part of Veolia) which consists of a 49,9 MW woodchip-fired and a 35 MW agricultural by-product-fired powerplants.[51] The country's largest solar cell field is also in Pécs, thanks to the city's southern location and longer sunny hours, which can produce about 10 MW energy a year. The solar power plant is operated by MVM Hungarowind (part of the MVM Group).[52]
The Expo Center Pécs Exhibition and Conference Centre provides place for international exhibitions and conferences.[53]
Education
The University of Pécs was founded by Louis I of Hungary in 1367. It is the oldest university in Hungary, and is among the first European universities. In the recent past it used to be divided in two universities, one for Medicine and Orthodontics (POTE)[54] and a larger one for other studies: JPTE (Janus Pannonius Tudományegyetem). The POTE (Pécs University Medical School, now known as the Medical School) has a large English program for general medicine and dentistry (with students from America, Asia, Africa, and European countries - including many Scandinavians) and a new German program. On 1 January 2000 these universities were combined under the name University of Pécs (acronym: PTE - Pécsi Tudományegyetem - University of Pécs). Nowadays, the University of Pécs has become the most internationalized university in Hungary with around 5000 international students out of the total of approximately 20000 students (around 25%).[55]
The current mayor of Pécs is Attila Péterffy (Pécs Jövője, Öt Torony).
The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 26 members (1 Mayor, 18 Individual constituencies councillors and 7 Compensation List councillors) divided into this political parties and alliances:[56]
Fidesz policies in Pécs have included a law making homelessness illegal (2014)[57] and an official call to property owners not to make space available for an NGO supported by OSF (2017).[58]
Trains at Pécs Central StationVolvo 7900A bus on Line 2A in downtownInternational airport
Roads
The M6/M60 motorway connects Pécs and Budapest with the driving time between the two cities taking about 2 hours now. The entire route opened on 31 March 2010. Route 6 crosses the city giving it an east–west axle and leaves it towards Barcs by the Croatian border. Secondary routes are:
Designed by Ferenc Pfaff,[59] the main railway station was built in 1900 and became a listed building in 2008.[60] The building itself was built in the style of Renaissance Eclecticism, and it features reliefs depicting James Watt and George Stephenson designed by Ármin Klein and made by the Zsolnay factory.[61] A mass transit hub -including a bus terminal, a bus stop and a cab rank zone- is situated on the square in front of the railway station.
Tram
A tram formerly operated in the city from 1914 to 1960.[citation needed]
^"Twin cities of Pécs". pecseconomy.eu. Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Pécs-Baranya. Archived from the original on 2022-02-20. Retrieved 2021-09-13.
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Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Sasana Budaya Ganesha – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTORSasana Budaya GaneshaInformasi stadionPemilikInstitut Teknologi BandungLokasiLokasiBandung, IndonesiaKonstruksiDibuka1997Sasana Bu...
Swedish film director This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Felix HerngrenFelix Herngren at the 2012 Polar Music Prize reception.BornFelix Tobias Herngren (1967-02-04) 4 February 1967 (age 56)Stockholm, SwedenOccupation(s)Director, actor, w...
This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: Article needs details about full demolition. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2022) Former stadium in Akron, Ohio Rubber BowlAerial view in 2004Location800 George Washington Blvd., Akron, Ohio 44312Coordinates41°2′22″N 81°27′22″W / 41.03944°N 81.45611°W / 41.03944; -81.45611OwnerCounty of Summit, OhioOperatorCounty of Summit, OhioCapacity...
American legislative district This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2020) Map of the 27th Utah Senate District. The 27th Utah Senate District is located in Carbon, Emery, Grand, San Juan and Utah Counties and includes Utah House Districts 55, 65, 66, 67, 69 and 70. The current State Senator representing the 27th district is Mike Dmitrich. Dmitrich was appointed to the Utah Senate in 1992 and was subsequ...
A view of the Palace A Picture of Biston inscription Behistun palace is a ruined Sassanid palace located in Bisotun, 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Kermanshah, Iran. It faces the cliff with the much older Behistun inscription and rock relief, across the ancient road running between Behistun mountain and Behistun lake. The palace has long been regarded in Persian tradition as a residence of Shirin, queen of Khosrau II, the Sassanid Shah of Persia who reigned from 590 to 628, shortly before th...
English author, publisher, and bookseller (1768–1841) Mary Jane GodwinBornMary Jane de Vial1768Exeter, Devon, EnglandDied17 June 1841(1841-06-17) (aged 72–73)London, EnglandOther namesMary Jane ClairmontOccupation(s)Author, publisher, booksellerSpouse William Godwin (m. 1801; died 1836)Children3; including Claire and WilliamRelativesFanny Imlay (stepdaughter)Mary Shelley (stepdaughter)Allegra Byron (granddaughter) Mary Jane God...
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: University of Altdorf – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The University of Altdorf in 1714 The University of Altdorf (German: Universität Altdorf) was a university in Altdorf bei N...
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Sollentuna Church – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template me...
1945 film by Harold S. Bucquet Without LoveTheatrical release posterDirected byHarold S. BucquetScreenplay byDonald Ogden StewartBased onWithout Love1942 playby Philip BarryProduced byLawrence WeingartenStarringSpencer Tracy (film) Katharine HepburnCinematographyKarl FreundEdited byFrank SullivanMusic byBronislau KaperProductioncompanyMetro-Goldwyn-MayerDistributed byLoew's Inc.Release date March 22, 1945 (1945-03-22) (New York City)[1] Running time111 minutesCountr...
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