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Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide

Artist's conception of OCO-2, the second successful high precision (better than 0.3%) CO2 observing satellite.

Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide (CO2) are used to help answer questions about Earth's carbon cycle. There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere from space. The first satellite mission designed to measure CO2 was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996. This mission lasted less than a year. Since then, additional space-based measurements have begun, including those from two high-precision (better than 0.3% or 1 ppm) satellites (GOSAT and OCO-2). Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions.

Purposes and highlights of findings

Part of a series on the
Carbon cycle
By regions
Carbon dioxide
Forms of carbon
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Carbon respiration
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There are outstanding questions in carbon cycle science that satellite observations can help answer. The Earth system absorbs about half of all anthropogenic CO2 emissions.[1] However, it is unclear exactly how this uptake is partitioned to different regions across the globe. It is also uncertain how different regions will behave in terms of CO2 flux under a different climate. For example, a forest may increase CO2 uptake due to the fertilization or β-effect,[2] or it could release CO2 due to increased metabolism by microbes at higher temperatures.[3] These questions are difficult to answer with historically spatially and temporally limited data sets.

Even though satellite observations of CO2 are somewhat recent, they have been used for a number of different purposes, some of which are highlighted here:

  • Megacity CO2 enhancements were observed with the GOSAT satellite and minimum observable space-based changes in emissions were estimated.[4]
  • Satellite observations have been used for visualizing how CO2 is distributed globally,[5] including studies that have focused on anthropogenic emissions.[6]
  • Flux estimates were made of CO2 into and out of different regions.[7][8]
  • Correlations were observed between anomalous temperatures and CO2 measurements in boreal regions.[9]
  • Zonal asymmetric patterns of CO2 were used to observe fossil fuel signatures.[10]
  • Emission ratios with methane were measured from forest fires.[11]
  • CO2 emission ratios with carbon monoxide (a marker of incomplete combustion) measured by the MOPITT instrument were analyzed over major urban regions across the globe to measure developing/developed status.[12]
  • OCO-2 observations were used to estimate CO2 emissions from wildfires in Indonesia in 2015.[13]
  • OCO-2 observations were also used to estimate the excess land-ocean flux due to the 2014–16 El Niño event.[14][15]
  • GOSAT observations were used to attribute 2010-2011 El Niño Modoki on the Brazilian carbon balance.[16]
  • OCO-2 observations were used to quantify CO2 emissions from individual power plants, demonstrating the potential for future space-based CO2 emission monitoring.[17]

Challenges

Remote sensing of trace gases has several challenges. Most techniques rely on observing infrared light reflected off Earth's surface. Because these instruments use spectroscopy, at each sounding footprint a spectrum is recorded—this means there is a significantly (about 1000×) more data to transfer than what would be required of just an RGB pixel. Changes in surface albedo and viewing angles may affect measurements, and satellites may employ different viewing modes over different locations; these may be accounted for in the algorithms used to convert raw into final measurements. As with other space-based instruments, space debris must be avoided to prevent damage.[citation needed]

Water vapor can dilute other gases in air and thus change the amount of CO2 in a column above the surface of the Earth, so often column-average dry-air mole fractions (XCO2) are reported instead. To calculate this, instruments may also measure O2, which is diluted similarly to other gases, or the algorithms may account for water and surface pressure from other measurements.[18] Clouds may interfere with accurate measurements so platforms may include instruments to measure clouds. Because of measurement imperfections and errors in fitting signals to obtain XCO2, space-based observations may also be compared with ground-based observations such as those from the TCCON.[19]

List of instruments

Instrument/satellite Primary institution(s) Service dates Approximate usable
daily soundings		 Approximate
sounding size		 Public data Notes Refs
HIRS-2/TOVS (NOAA-10) NOAA (U.S.) July 1987–
June 1991		 100 × 100 km No Measuring CO2 was not an original mission goal [20]
IMG (ADEOS I) NASDA (Japan) 17 August 1996–
June 1997		 50 8 × 8 km No FTS system [21]
SCIAMACHY (Envisat) ESA, IUP University of Bremen (Germany) 1 March 2002–
May 2012		 5,000 30 × 60 km Yes[22] [23]
AIRS (Aqua) JPL (U.S.) 4 May 2002–
ongoing		 18,000 90 × 90 km Yes[24] [25][26]
IASI (MetOp) CNES/EUMETSAT (ESA) 19 October 2006 20-39 km diameter Yes (only a few days)[27] [28]
GOSAT JAXA (Japan) 23 January 2009–
ongoing		 10,000 10.5 km diameter Yes[29] First dedicated high precision (<0.3%) mission, also measures CH4 [30][31]
OCO JPL (U.S.) 24 February 2009 100,000 1.3 × 2.2 km N/A Failed to reach orbit[32]
OCO-2 JPL (U.S.) 2 July 2014–
ongoing		 100,000 1.3 × 2.2 km Yes[33] High precision (<0.3%) [34]
GHGSat-D (or Claire) GHGSat (Canada) 21 June 2016–
ongoing		 ~2–5 images,
10,000+ pixels each		 12 × 12 km,
50 m resolution image		 available to selected partners only CubeSat and imaging spectrometer using Fabry-Pérot interferometer [35]
TanSat (or CarbonSat) CAS (China) 21 December 2016–
ongoing		 100,000 1 × 2 km Yes (L1B radiances)[36] [37][38]
GAS FTS aboard FY-3D CMA (China) 15 November 2017–
ongoing[39]		 15,000 13 km diameter No [40][41]
GMI (GaoFen-5, (fr)) CAS (China) 8 May 2018–
ongoing[42]		 10.3 km diameter No Spatial heterodyne [43][44]
GOSAT-2 JAXA (Japan) 29 October 2018–
ongoing[45]		 10,000+ 9.7 km diameter Yes (L1B radiances)[46] Will also measure CH4 and CO [47]
OCO-3 JPL (U.S.) 4 May 2019–
ongoing[48]		 100,000 <4.5 × 4.5 km Yes[49] Mounted on the ISS [50]
MicroCarb CNES (France) expected 2022 ~30,000 4.5 × 9 km Will likely also measure CH4 [51]
GOSAT-3 JAXA (Japan) expected 2022
GeoCARB University of Oklahoma (U.S.) expected 2023 ~800,000 3 × 6 km First CO2-observing geosynchronous satellite, will also measure CH4 and CO [52][53]

Partial column measurements

In addition to the total column measurements of CO2 down to the ground, there have been several limb sounders that have measured CO2 through the edge of Earth's upper atmosphere, and thermal instruments that measure the upper atmosphere during the day and night.

  • Sounding of the Atmosphere using Broadband Emission Radiometry (SABER) onboard TIMED launched 7 December 2001 makes measurements in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere in thermal bands.[54]
  • ACE-FTS (Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment-Fourier Transform Spectrometer) onboard SCISAT-1 launched 13 August 2003 measures solar spectra, from which profiles of CO2 can be calculated.[55]
  • SOFIE (Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment) is a limb sounder on board the AIM satellite launched 25 April 2007.[56]

Conceptual Missions

There have been other conceptual missions which have undergone initial evaluations but have not been chosen to become a part of space-based observing systems. These include:

  • Active Sensing of CO2 Emissions over Nights, Days, and Seasons (ASCENDS) is a lidar-based mission[57]
  • Geostationary Fourier Transform Spectrometer (GeoFTS)[58]
  • Atmospheric Imaging Mission for Northern regions (AIM-North) would involve a constellation of two satellites in elliptical orbits to focus on northern regions.[59][60] The concept is undergoing a Phase 0 study in 2019–2020.
  • Carbon Monitoring Satellite (CarbonSat) was a concept for an imaging satellite with global coverage approximately every 6 days. This mission never proceeded beyond the concept phase.[61]

References

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Chico Buarque (2011 album)

2011 studio album by Chico BuarqueChico BuarqueStudio album by Chico BuarqueReleased2011GenreMPB Chico Buarque is an album by Brazilian composer, singer and musician Chico Buarque released on June 20, 2011.[1][2] Track listing Querido Diário C. Buarque[3] Rubato C. Buarque, Helder Essa pequena C. Buarque Tipo um baião C. Buarque Se eu soubesse (with Thais Gulin) C. Buarque Sem você nº 2 C. Buarque Sou eu (with Wilson das Neves) C. Buarque, I. Lins Nina C. B...

 

Richmond Park

Royal Park in London, England For other uses, see Richmond Park (disambiguation). Richmond ParkSite of Special Scientific InterestIsabella Plantation, Richmond ParkLocationGreater London, England, United KingdomGrid referenceTQ2073InterestBiological, historicalArea955 hectares (2360 acres)[1]Notification1992Location mapMagic Map Richmond Park, in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, is the largest of London's Royal Parks and is of national and international importance for wildl...

Heinkel He 111

World War II German heavy bomber He 111 A Heinkel He 111H of Kampfgeschwader 53 Role Heavy bomberType of aircraft Manufacturer Heinkel Flugzeugwerke Designer Siegfried and Walter Günter First flight 24 February 1935 Introduction 1935 Retired 1945 (Luftwaffe) 1958 (Spain)[1] Primary user Luftwaffe Produced 1935–1944 Number built 32 prototype aircraft12 civilian airliners808 pre-war aircraft5,656 aircraft (1939–1944)Total: 6,508[2] Variants CASA 2.111 The Heinkel He 11...

 

Combat Flight Simulator 2

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Ippen Shōnin Eden

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Field hockey has been played by men in Australia since 1901. By 1907, there were clubs in several states including New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria. Women's field hockey was eventually represented by the Australian Institute of Sport, though the amount of support it received was less than the support the men received. The All Australian Women's Hockey Association was established in 1910 to govern the sport in Australia. in 2000, Women's Hockey Australia merged with the...

 

Asyncritus of Hyrcania

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The Tommyknockers (miniseries)

This article is about the American television miniseries. For the novel in which it is based, see The Tommyknockers. This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: The Tommyknockers miniseries – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) TV series or program The TommyknockersProm...

 
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