After the United States established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1979 and recognized Beijing as the only legal government of China, Taiwan–United States relations became unofficial and informal following terms of the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), which allows the United States to have relations with the Taiwanese people and their government, whose name is not specified.[1][2][3] U.S.–Taiwan relations were further informally grounded in the Six Assurances in response to the third communiqué on the establishment of US–PRC relations. The Taiwan Travel Act, passed by the U.S. Congress on March 16, 2018, allows high-level U.S. officials to visit Taiwan and vice versa.[4] Both sides have since signed a consular agreement formalizing their existent consular relations on September 13, 2019.[5] The US government removed self-imposed restrictions on executive branch contacts with Taiwan on January 9, 2021.[6]
Over the past four decades, the U.S. government's policy of deliberate ambiguity toward Taiwan has been viewed as critical to stabilizing cross-strait relations by seeking to deter the PRC from using force toward the region and dissuade Taiwan from seeking independence.[7][8] However, in recent years as Beijing escalated its moves and further clarified its intentions, the effectiveness of strategic ambiguity became a topic of debate in academic and policy communities.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15] In 2021 and 2022, U.S. President Joe Biden made various forceful comments about coming to Taiwan's military defense in the event of a PRC invasion, indicating what scholars called a potential shift to "strategic clarity,"[16][17] while the State Department reiterated that the administration's Taiwan policy remained unchanged.[18][19][20][21]
In 1784, the United States attempted to send a consul to China but this was rejected by the Chinese government, with official relations beginning on June 16, 1844, under President John Tyler,[25] leading to the 1845 Treaty of Wangxia.
Two American diplomats in the 1850s suggested to Washington that the U.S. should obtain the island of Taiwan from China, but the idea was rejected.[26][27] Aboriginals on Taiwan often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors, and American diplomats tried to help them.[28] In 1867, during the Rover incident, Taiwanese aborigines attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew. They subsequently skirmished against and defeated a retaliatory expedition by the American military and killed another American during the battle.[29]
During the Pacific War, the United States and the Republic of China were allied against Japan. In October 1945, a month after Japan's surrender, representatives of Chiang Kai-shek, on behalf of the Allies, were sent to Formosa to accept the surrender of Japanese troops. However, during the period of the 1940s, there was no recognition by the United States Government that Taiwan had ever been incorporated into Chinese national territory.[31] Chiang continued to remain suspicious of America's motives.[32]
Two major US military units in Taiwan during the Cold War.
The Nationalists were defeated by the Communists in the Chinese Civil War.[33]: 125 The Nationalist ROC government retreated to Taiwan.[33]: 125
In August 1949, the United States suspended the ROC's involvement in the Fulbright Program because the fleeing government was no longer able to make payments on the surplus war material it had purchased from the United States after the end of World War II.[33]: 32
On January 5, 1950, United States President Harry S. Truman issued a statement that the United States would not become involved in "the civil conflict in China" and would not provide military aid or advice to the Nationalist forces on Taiwan.[33]: 125
On February 6, 1950, the Nationalist air force bombed Shanghai, causing extensive damage to American-owned property in the city including the Shanghai power company.[33]: 125 The American government responded by sending a diplomatic protest to the Nationalist Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[33]: 125
After their defeat in the Chinese Civil War, parts of the Nationalist army had retreated south and crossed the border into Burma.[35]: 65 The United States supported these Nationalist forces because the United States hoped they would harass the People's Republic of China from the southwest, thereby diverting Chinese resources from the Korean War.[35]: 65 The Burmese government protested and international pressure increased.[35]: 65 Beginning in 1953, several rounds of withdrawals of the Nationalist forces and their families were carried out.[35]: 65 In 1960, joint military action by China and Burma expelled the remaining Nationalist forces from Burma, although some went on to settle in the Burma-Thailand borderlands.[35]: 65–66
During a 1953 visit to Taiwan, Vice President Richard Nixon stated that the United States would help turn Taiwan into an anticommunist military and cultural bastion.[33]: 10 In 1954, the United States began providing significant funding for education in Taiwan, including to attract overseas Chinese.[33]: 10 These efforts also helped the KMT to consolidate its power on Taiwan.[33]: 10
The U.S. State Department's official position on Taiwan in 1959 was:
That the provisional capital of the Republic of China has been at Taipei, Taiwan (Formosa) since December 1949; that the Government of the Republic of China exercises authority over the island; that the sovereignty of Formosa has not been transferred to China; and that Formosa is not a part of China as a country, at least not as yet, and not until and unless appropriate treaties are hereafter entered into. Formosa may be said to be a territory or an area occupied and administered by the Government of the Republic of China, but is not officially recognized as being a part of the Republic of China.
During the early Cold War the United States deployed nuclear weapons on Taiwan as part of the United States Taiwan Defense Command. In 1972, United States president Richard Nixon ordered nuclear weapons to be removed from Taiwan and this was implemented by 1974.[38]
During the 1970s, the KMT under Executive Yuan Premier Chiang Ching-kuo organized a people's diplomacy campaign in the United States in an effort to mobilize American political sentiment in opposition to the PRC through mass demonstrations and petitions.[39]: 42 Among these efforts, the KMT worked with the John Birch Society to launch a petition writing campaign through which Americans were urged to write their local government officials and ask them to "Cut the Red China connection."[39]: 42
During its martial law period (1949 to 1987), the Taiwan government surveilled Taiwanese abroad, most often in Japan and in the United States.[37]: 2 The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation often cooperated with or allowed the KMT to surveil Taiwanese students and other Taiwanese migrants in the United States.[37]: 15
According to a 1979 report by the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the Taiwan government operated one of the two most active anti-dissident networks within the United States, with agents infiltrated within universities and campus organizations and large-scale propaganda campaigns implemented through front organizations.[37]: 7
In 1979 and 1980, a series of bombings targeted KMT offices and officials in the United States.[37]: 151 The United States placed the World United Formosans for Independence on its terrorist organization watch list as a result.[37]: 151
At the height of the Sino-Soviet Split, and at the start of the reform and opening of People's Republic of China, the United States strategically switched diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China (ROC) to the People's Republic of China (PRC) on January 1, 1979, to counter the political influences and military threats from the Soviet Union. The US Embassy in Taipei was 'migrated' to Beijing and the Taiwanese Embassy in the US was closed. Following the termination of diplomatic relations, the United States terminated its Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan on January 1, 1980.
On April 10, 1979, U.S. President Jimmy Carter signed into law the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), which created domestic legal authority for the conduct of unofficial relations with Taiwan. U.S. commercial, cultural, and other interaction with the people on Taiwan is facilitated through the American Institute in Taiwan (AIT), a private nonprofit corporation. The institute has its headquarters in the Washington, DC area and has offices in Taipei and Kaohsiung. It is authorized to issue visas, accept passport applications, and provide assistance to U.S. citizens in Taiwan. A counterpart organization, the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States (TECRO), has been established by Taiwan. It has its headquarters in Taipei, the representative branch office in Washington, DC, and 11 other Taipei Economic and Cultural Offices (TECO) in the continental U.S. and Guam. The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) continues to provide the legal basis for the unofficial relationship between the U.S. and Taiwan, and enshrines the U.S. commitment to assisting Taiwan maintain its defensive capability.
After de-recognition, the U.S. still maintains unofficial diplomatic relations with Taiwan through Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office; the current head of TECRO in Washington, D.C. is Stanley Kao. The American Institute in Taiwan, a non-profit institute headquarters in the US soil under the laws of the District of Columbia in Arlington County, Virginia and serves as the semi-official, working-level US representation and AIT has branch offices in Taipei and Kaohsiung. The Chairman of AIT is Raymond Burghardt. Christopher J. Marut was appointed to be the new AIT Taipei Office Director in August 2012.[40][41] With the absence of diplomatic recognition, in the present state, Taiwan-US relations are formally guided by the service of enactment of Taiwan Relations Act by US Congress for the continuation of Taiwan-US relations after 1979.
Taiwan helped Ronald Reagan circumvent the Boland Amendment by providing covert support to the Contras in Nicaragua.[42]
Reagan pressured Taiwan into giving up its Sky Horse ballistic missile program.[43]
Taiwan's secret nuclear weapons program was revealed after the 1987 Lieyu massacre,[44][45] when Colonel Chang Hsien-yi Deputy Director of Nuclear Research at INER,[46] who was secretly working for the CIA, defected to the U.S. in December 1987 and produced a cache of incriminating documents.[47] The CIA oversaw negotiations with the Taiwanese which led them to abandon their nuclear ambitions in return for security guarantees.[43] Since the end of the nuclear weapons program the "Nuclear Card" has played an important part in Taiwan's relationship with the United States.[48]
The Taiwan Policy Act of 2013 was raised and passed in the House Committee on Foreign Affairs by the US Congress to update the conditions of US-Taiwan relations.[51][52] In 2015 Kin Moy was appointed to the Director of the AIT.
U.S. commercial ties with Taiwan have been maintained and have expanded since 1979. Taiwan continues to enjoy Export-Import Bank financing, Overseas Private Investment Corporation guarantees, normal trade relations (NTR) status, and ready access to U.S. markets.[53] In recent years, AIT commercial dealings with Taiwan have focused on expanding market access for American goods and services. AIT has been engaged in a series of trade discussions, which have focused on copyright concerns and market access for U.S. goods and services.
A new $250 million compound for the American Institute in Taiwan was unveiled in June 2018, accompanied by a "low-key" American delegation.[57] The Chinese authorities estimated this action as violation of "one China" policy statement and claimed the US to stop any relations with Taiwan.[58]
In September 2018, the United States approved the sale of $330 million worth of spare parts and other equipment to sustain the Republic of China Air Force.[59][60]
In July 2019, the US State Department approved the sale of M1A2T Abrams tanks, Stinger missiles and related equipment at an approximate value of $2.2 billion to Taiwan.[61]
In May 2020, the US State Department approved a possible Foreign Military Sale of 18 MK-48 Mod 6 Advanced Technology Heavy Weight Torpedoes for Taiwan in a deal estimated to cost $180 million.[62]
In September 2020, the US Ambassador to the United NationsKelly Craft met with James K.J. Lee, director-general of the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in New York, who was secretary-general in Taiwan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs until July, for lunch in New York City in what was the first meeting between a top Taiwan official and a United States ambassador to the United Nations.[65] Craft said she and Lee discussed ways the US can help Taiwan become more engaged within the U.N., and she pointed to a December 2019 email alert from Taiwan that WHO had ignored, recognizing and warning about the danger of the person-to-person transmission of the new highly contagious Covid-19 virus in China.[65]
In an October 2020 deal of $2.37 billion between the U.S. and Taiwan, the U.S. State Department approved the potential sale to Taiwan of 400 Harpoon anti-ship cruise missiles including associated radars, road-mobile launchers, and technical support.[66]
In January 2021, Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen met with United States Ambassador to the UN Kelly Craft by video link.[67] Craft said: "We discussed the many ways Taiwan is a model for the world, as demonstrated by its success in fighting COVID-19 and all that Taiwan has to offer in the fields of health, technology and cutting-edge science.... the U.S. stands with Taiwan and always will."[67] Speaking in Beijing, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman Zhao Lijian said: "Certain U.S. politicians will pay a heavy price for their wrong words and deeds."[68] On her last day in office later that month, Craft called Taiwan "a force for good on the global stage -- a vibrant democracy, a generous humanitarian actor, a responsible actor in the global health community, and a vigorous promoter and defender of human rights."[69]
In June 2021 a congressional delegation made up of Tammy Duckworth, Dan Sullivan and Christopher Coons briefly visited Taiwan and met with President Tsai Ing-wen. Their use of a C-17 military cargo aircraft drew strong protest from China.[70]
On March 3, 2021, the Biden administration reasserted the strength of the relationship between the U.S. and Taiwan in the administration's Interim National Security Strategic Guidance.[71] On March 8, 2021, the Biden administration made the following statement during a press briefing: "We will stand with friends and allies to advance our shared prosperity, security, and values in the Indo-Pacific region. We maintain our longstanding commitments, as outlined in the Three Communiqués, the Taiwan Relations Act, and the Six Assurances. And we will continue to assist Taiwan in maintaining a sufficient self-defense capability."[72]
On May 23, 2022, President Biden, during his trip to Asia, vowed to defend Taiwan with US military in the case of an invasion by China.[73] At the end of May Illinois Senator Tammy Duckworth led a congressional delegation to Taiwan.[74]
In late May 2022, the State Department restored a line on its fact sheet on US-Taiwan relations which it removed earlier in the month and stated it did not support Taiwanese independence. However,[75] another line which was also removed in the earlier fact sheet that acknowledged China's sovereignty claims over Taiwan was not restored while a line that stated the U.S. would maintain its capacity to resist any efforts by China to undermine the security, sovereignty and prosperity of Taiwan in a manner that was consistent with the Taiwan Relations Act was added to the updated fact sheet.
In July 2022 Senator Rick Scott led a congressional delegation to Taiwan.[76]
On August 2, 2022, Nancy Pelosi, the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives led a congressional delegation to Taiwan, leading to a military and economic response from China.[77] Later in August a congressional delegation led by Massachusetts Senator Ed Markey also visited Taiwan[78] and Indiana Governor Eric Holcomb (who became the first Indiana Governor to visit Taiwan since 2005).[79] In late August 2022 Tennessee Senator Marsha Blackburn visited Taiwan.[80] In late August 2022 then Arizona Governor Doug Ducey arrived in Taiwan for a visit focused on semiconductors.[81]
On April 5, 2023, Tsai met with Kevin McCarthy, the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California and a bipartisan delegation of House members. The meeting between Tsai and McCarthy marked the first time a Taiwanese President had met with a US House Speaker on American soil and the second time in less than a year that a Taiwanese President had met with a US House Speaker (having met Pelosi in August 2022 in Taiwan).[82]
In June 2023 a US congressional delegation comprising nine representatives headed by Mike Rogers visited Taiwan.[83]
In September 2023 the Biden administration redirected military aid funding which had been appropriated to Egypt to Taiwan and Lebanon in response to a deteriorating human rights situation in Egypt.[84]
In October 2023, Taiwan's vice defense minister Hsu Yen-pu urged the US to accelerate arms delivery at the US-Taiwan Defense Industry Conference in Virginia, a key exchange venue for top US and Taiwan defense officials that had been hosted annually since 2012.[85][86][87]
Some academics and retired Chinese military officers have claimed that Washington is trying to provoke Beijing to attack Taiwan by providing arms to them. Xi Jinping, told European Commission president Ursula von der Leyen that the US was trying to trick China into invading Taiwan, but that he would not take the bait.[88]
In November 2023 the US state of North Carolina opened an investment office in Taipei.[89]
Notable events
In 1949, when Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's troops decamped to Taiwan at the end of the Chinese civil war, Washington continued to recognize Chiang's "Republic of China" as the government of all China. In late 1978, Washington announced that it would break relations with the government in Taipei and formally recognize the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the "sole legal government of China."[90]
Washington's "one China" policy, however, does not mean that the United States recognizes or agrees with Beijing's claims to sovereignty over Taiwan.[90][91] On July 14, 1982, the RepublicanReagan administration gave specific assurances to Taiwan that the United States did not accept China's claim to sovereignty over the island (Six Assurances),[90][92] and the U.S. Department of State informed the Senate that "[t]he United States takes no position on the question of Taiwan's sovereignty."
The U.S. Department of State, in its U.S. Relations With Taiwan fact sheet, states "[T]he United States and Taiwan enjoy a robust unofficial relationship. The 1979 U.S.–P.R.C. Joint Communiqué switched diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing. In the Joint Communiqué, the United States recognized the Government of the People's Republic of China as the sole legal government of China, acknowledging the Chinese position that there is but one China and Taiwan is part of China.[93]
The United States position on Taiwan is reflected in "the six assurances to Taiwan", the Three Communiqués, and the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA).[94]
The Six Assurances include:
1. The United States has not agreed to set a date for ending arms sales to Taiwan;
2. The United States has not agreed to hold prior consultations with the Chinese on arms sales to Taiwan;
3. The United States would not play any mediation role between Taiwan and Beijing;
4. The United States has not agreed to revise the Taiwan Relations Act;
5. The United States has not altered its position regarding sovereignty over Taiwan; and
6. The United States would not exert pressure on Taiwan to enter into negotiations with the Chinese.[95] The "Three Communiqués" include The Shanghai Communiqué, The Normalisation Communiqué, and The August 17 Communiqué, which pledged to abrogate official US-ROC relations, remove US troops from Taiwan and gradually end the arms sale to Taiwan, but with the latter of no timeline to do so, an effort made by James Lilley, the Director of American Institute in Taiwan.
President Bush was asked on 25 April 2001, "if Taiwan were attacked by China, do we (The U.S.) have an obligation to defend the Taiwanese?" He responded, "Yes, we do...and the Chinese must understand that. The United States would do whatever it took to help Taiwan defend herself."[96] He made it understood that "though we (China and the U.S.) have common interests, the Chinese must understand that there will be some areas where we disagree."[96] On the advice of his advisors, Bush later made clear to the press that there was no change in American policy.[97]
On 19 June 2013, ROC Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed gratitude for a US Congress's bill in support of Taiwan's bid to participate in the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).[98] On July 12, 2013, US President Barack Obama signed into law H.R. 1151, codifying the US government's full support for Taiwan's participation in the ICAO as a non-sovereign entity.[99] The United States has continued the sale of appropriate defensive military equipment to Taiwan in accordance with the Taiwan Relations Act, which provides for such sales and which declares that peace and stability in the area are in U.S. interests. Sales of defensive military equipment are also consistent with the 1982 U.S.-P.R.C. Joint Communiqué.
Maintaining diplomatic relations with the PRC has been recognized to be in the long-term interest of the United States by seven consecutive administrations; however, maintaining strong, unofficial relations with Taiwan is also a major U.S. goal, in line with its desire to further peace and stability in Asia. In keeping with its China policy, the U.S. does not support de jureTaiwan independence, but it does support Taiwan's membership in appropriate international organizations, such as the World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, and the Asian Development Bank, where statehood is not a requirement for membership. In addition, the U.S. supports appropriate opportunities for Taiwan's voice to be heard in organizations where its membership is not possible.
On 24 August 2010, the United States State Department announced a change to commercial sales of military equipment in place of the previous foreign military sales in the hope of avoiding political implications.[citation needed] However pressure from the PRC has continued and it seems unlikely that Taiwan will be provided with advanced submarines or jet fighters.[100]
Taiwan has indicated that it is willing to host national missile defense radars to be tied into the American system, but is unwilling to pay for any further cost overruns in the systems.[citation needed]
On December 2, 2016, U.S. President-Elect Donald Trump accepted a congratulatory call from Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-Wen, which was the first time since 1979 that a President-Elect has publicly spoken to a leader of Taiwan.[101] Donald Trump stated the call was regarding "the close economic, political and security ties between Taiwan and the US".[102] The phone call had been arranged by Bob Dole, who acted as a foreign agent on behalf of Taiwan.[103]
In June 2017, the Trump administration approved $1.4 billion arms sales to Taiwan.[104]
On 16 March 2018, President Trump signed the Taiwan Travel Act,[105] allowing high-level diplomatic engagement between Taiwanese and American officials, and encourages visits between government officials of the United States and Taiwan at all levels.[106][107] The legislation has sparked outrage from the PRC,[108] and has been applauded by Taiwan.[109][106]
On 17 July 2018, Taiwan's Army officially commissioned all of its Apache attack helicopters purchased from the United States, at cost of $59.31 billion NT(US$1.94 billion), having completed the necessary pilot training and verification of the fleet's combat capability. One of the helicopters was destroyed in a crash during a training flight in Taoyuan in April 2014 and the other 29 have been allocated to the command's 601st Brigade, which is based in Longtan, Taoyuan. Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen said the commissioning of the Apaches was "an important milestone" in meeting the island's "multiple deterrence" strategy to counter an invasion and to resist Beijing's pressure with support from Washington, which has been concerned about Beijing's growing military expansion in the South China Sea and beyond.[110]
On 26 March 2020, President Trump signed the TAIPEI Act, aiming to increase the scope of US relations with Taiwan and encouraging other nations and international organizations to strengthen their official and unofficial ties with the island nation.[111]
In late October 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken called on all United Nations member states to support Taiwan's participation in the U.N. system. The comments came a day after the 50th anniversary of U.N. Resolution 2758, in which the People's Republic of China was designated as the representative of China at the U.N., while the Republic of China (R.O.C.) was expelled.[112][113]
On December 15, 2021, the US House of Representative and Senate have both passed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2022, in which calls for the enhancements of the security of Taiwan, including inviting the Taiwanese navy to the 2022 Rim of the Pacific exercise in the face of "increasingly coercive and aggressive behavior" by China.[115][116] President Joe Biden signed the act on December 27, 2021.[117]
On 27 January 2022, U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris and Vice President of Taiwan Lai Ching-te had a brief conversation during the presidential inauguration ceremony of Xiomara Castro of Honduras.[118]
On July 28, 2022, U.S. President Joe Biden had a phone call with Chinese President Xi Jinping, during which he "underscored that the United States policy has not changed and that the United States strongly opposes unilateral efforts to change the status quo or undermine peace and stability across the Taiwan Strait."[119]
On May 18, 2023, the USTR announced that the US and Taiwan, "under the auspices of the American Institute in Taiwan and the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office in the US, have concluded negotiations on the U.S.-Taiwan Initiative on 21st Century Trade."[120][121]
On June 29, 2023, the State Department approved $440 million in arms sales to Taiwan, pending final approval by Congress.[122] Beijing opposed the move,[123] AIT Chair Laura Rosenberger later stated that the US' "interest in peace and stability across the Strait and our commitments to supporting Taiwan's self-defense capacity are things we will continue to uphold, any complaints from Beijing are not going to change that approach."[124]
On February 22, 2024, the State Department approved $75 million in weapons sale to Taiwan, the 13th such approval under the Biden administration. The announcement was made shortly prior to a bipartisan U.S. House Select Committee on China delegation led by Mike Gallagher arrived to Taiwan.[129]
In July 2024, Texas governor Greg Abbott signed an economic cooperation agreement between Texas and Taiwan and agreed to open a trade representative office in Taipei.[130]
^"A GUIDE TO THE UNITED STATES' HISTORY OF RECOGNITION, DIPLOMATIC, AND CONSULAR RELATIONS, BY COUNTRY, SINCE 1776: CHINA". history.state.gov. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved May 2, 2015. Mutual Recognition, 1844. Formal recognition by the United States of the Empire of China, and by the Empire of China of the United States, came on or about June 16, 1844, when U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary Caleb Cushing presented his credentials and met with Chinese official Qiying to discuss treaty negotiations. Prior to this, the United States had dispatched consuls to Guangzhou as early as 1784—the first was Samuel Shaw, the supercargo on the Empress of China—but these had never been formally received by Chinese officials as state representatives. The two countries had acknowledged each other's existence before 1844, but the negotiations and treaty of that year marked the first recognition under international law.
^ abMinami, Kazushi (2024). People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN9781501774157.
^For a detailed description of the U.S. "one China" stance, see Ambassador Harvey Feldman, "A Primer on U.S. Policy Toward the 'One-China' Issue: Questions and Answers," Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 1429, April 12, 2001.
^Testimony of John H. Holdridge, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian Affairs, in hearing, China-Taiwan: United States Policy, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 97th Cong., 2nd Sess., August 18, 1982, pp. 15-16. Holdridge described the Six Assurances in his memoir, Crossing the Divide, p. 232.
Benson, Brett V., and Emerson MS Niou. "Public opinion, foreign policy, and the security balance in the Taiwan Strait." Security Studies 14.2 (2005): 274–289.
Bush, Richard C. At cross purposes: US-Taiwan relations since 1942 (Routledge, 2015).
Carpenter, Ted Galen. America's coming war with China: a collision course over Taiwan (Macmillan, 2015).
Glaser, Charles L. "A US-China grand bargain? The hard choice between military competition and accommodation." International Security 39#4 (2015): 49–90.
Hickey, Dennis Van Vranken. "America's Two-point Policy and the Future of Taiwan." Asian Survey (1988): 881–896. in JSTOR
Hickey, Dennis V. "Parallel Progress: US-Taiwan Relations During an Era of Cross-Strait Rapprochement." Journal of Chinese Political Science 20#4 (2015): 369–384.
Hu, Shaohua. "A Framework for Analysis of National Interest: United States Policy toward Taiwan," Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 37, No. 1 (April 2016): 144–167.
Kim, Claudia J. (2019) "Military alliances as a stabilising force: U.S. relations with South Korea and Taiwan, 1950s-1960s." Journal of Strategic Studies
Ling, Lily HM, Ching-Chane Hwang, and Boyu Chen. "Subaltern straits:‘exit’,‘voice’, and ‘loyalty’in the United States–China–Taiwan relations." International Relations of the Asia-Pacific (2009): lcp013.
Matray, James I. ed. East Asia and the United States: An Encyclopedia of relations since 1784 (2 vol. Greenwood, 2002). excerpt v 2
Peraino, Kevin. A Force So Swift: Mao, Truman, and the Birth of Modern China, 1949 (2017), focus on .S. policy in 1949
Sutter, Robert. "US Domestic Debate Over Policy Toward Mainland China and Taiwan: Key Findings, Outlook and Lessons." American Journal of Chinese Studies (2001): 133–144.
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Niet verwarren met Carrouge, een gemeente in het kanton Vaud. Carouge Gemeente in Zwitserland Situering Kanton Genève BFS/OFS/UST-code 6608 Soort gemeente Stad Coördinaten 46° 11′ NB, 6° 8′ OL Algemeen Oppervlakte 2,65 km² Inwoners (31-12-2013) 20.630 Hoogte 386 m Overig Postcode 1227 Website Ville de Carouge Detailkaart Portaal Zwitserland Zicht vanop de Pont de Carouge: de Arve en de Mont Salève. Carouge is een gemeente en plaats in het Zwitserse kanton Genève. …
Ана Маєр-Канськисловен. Ana Mayer-KanskyІм'я при народженні Ana MayerНародилася 20 червня 1895(1895-06-20)[1]Ложе, Випава, Словенія[1]Померла 3 листопада 1962(1962-11-03)[1] (67 років)Подград (Любляна), Любляна, Соціалістична Республіка Словенія, ФНРЮ[1]Поховання цвинтар ЖалеКраїна ФНР…
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (سبتمبر 2023) يستند نظام الدرجات الأكاديمية التونسي في الغالب على مقياسٍ مكوّنٍ من 20 درجة أو نقطة ويُستخدم في المدارس الثانوية وكذلك في الجامعات. بالنسبة للمدارس الابت…
Universidad AutónomaUniversitat Autònoma El edificio para viajeros en 2009.UbicaciónCoordenadas 41°30′11″N 2°06′09″E / 41.502972222222, 2.10245Municipio Sardañola del VallésZona ATM 2CDatos de la estaciónPunto kilométrico 1,3Código 630Inauguración 8 de octubre de 1984Servicios Conexiones N.º de andenes 2N.º de vías 2Propietario FGCOperador FGCServicios detalladosUso Tren de cercaníasLíneas « Bellatierra ← → San Quirico [editar datos en Wikidata…
Duaja (panji kejayaan) - desain tiang bendera dengan selendang sutra, dengan Istana Potala sebagai latar belakangnya. Duaja (Dewanagari: ध्वज; ,IAST: dhvaja,; Tibet: རྒྱལ་མཚན; Wylie: rgyal-msthan) adalah kata dari bahasa Sanskerta yang berarti panji atau bendera. Dalam agama dharma (Hindu, Jaina, Buddha), duaja merupakan salah satu Astamanggala, yaitu 'delapan benda pembawa keberuntungan'. Dalam tradisi Hindu, duaja dapat berupa tiang tinggi (dwaja…
كومة من االملح المعالج باليود الملح المعالج باليود أو الملح الميودن [1] هو ملح طعام مخلوط بكميات صغيرة جدا من أملاح عنصر اليود.[2][3][4] استهلاك عنصر اليود مهم للوقاية من نقص اليود والذي يعاني منه حوالي مليوني شخص في جميع أنحاء العالم. أيضا يقي عنصر اليود من مشاكل…
This article is about the Tiny Encryption Algorithm. It is not to be confused with the TETRA encryption algorithm.Block cipher TEATwo Feistel rounds (one cycle) of TEA[1]GeneralDesignersRoger Needham, David WheelerFirst published1994SuccessorsXTEACipher detailKey sizes128 bitsBlock sizes64 bitsStructureFeistel networkRoundsvariable; recommended 64 Feistel rounds (32 cycles)Best public cryptanalysisTEA suffers from equivalent keys (see text; Kelsey et al., 1996) and can be broken using a …
Sint-Jan-de-Doperkerk De Sint-Jan-de-Doperkerk was de parochiekerk van Sint-Jan-in-Eremo en fungeert tegenwoordig als (bedevaart)kapel. Geschiedenis De Sint-Jansparochie werd voor het eerst schriftelijk vermeld in 1307. Vermoedelijk werd omstreeks dezelfde tijd een eerste parochiekerk opgericht. Deze werd bij een overstroming in 1375-1376 verwoest om in het begin van de 16e eeuw weer opnieuw te worden gebouwd. Eind 16e eeuw werd deze kerk beschadigd tijdens de godsdiensttwisten en in 1652 opnieu…
Indian film production and distribution company This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Grass Root Film Company – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Grass Root Film CompanyTypePrivateFilm productionIndustryEntertainmentMotion pict…
Territorial authority district in South Island, New ZealandWaimakariri DistrictTerritorial authority districtCouncil offices in Rangiora Coat of armsCoordinates: 43°18′S 172°18′E / 43.3°S 172.3°E / -43.3; 172.3CountryNew ZealandIslandSouth Island (Te Waipounamu)RegionCanterburyCommunitiesKaiapoi-TuahiwiWoodend-SeftonOxford-OhokaRangiora-AshleyWardsKaiapoi-WoodendOxford-OhokaRangiora-AshleyNamed forWaimakariri RiverSeatRangioraTowns List AshleyBurnt HillClarkvilleC…
American professional Call of Duty League (CDL) esports team based in Los Angeles, California Los Angeles ThievesShort nameLA ThievesFoundedNovember 6, 2020; 3 years ago (2020-11-06)LeagueCall of Duty LeagueTeam historyLos Angeles Thieves(2020–present)Based inLos Angeles, California, United StatesColors CEOMatthew Nadeshot HaagChampionships1 (2022)Stage titles2 (2022 & 2023 Major 4)PartnersAT&T, Totinos, Cash App, Razer, Rocket Mortgage, JBL, Chipot…