Istorija poljoprivrede

Poljoprivreda se prvi put razvila pre više od 10.000 godina i od vremena prvih kultura prošla kroz značajan razvoj.^[2]^[3] Dokazi sugerišu kako se u Plodnom polumesecu na Bliskom istoku prvi put sejale i žele biljke koje su pre toga bile prikupljane u divljini.^[4] Veruje se da su se slične tehnike nezavisno razvile i u severnoj i južnoj Kini, afričkom Sahelu, Novoj Gvineji te Amerikama.^[5] Poljoprivredne tehnike kao navodnjavanje, plodored, đubrivo i pesticidi su se davno razvile, ali su tek u posljednja dva veka zabeležile značajan napredak. Haber-Bošova metoda za sintezu amonijum nitrata^[6]^[7]^[8], omogućila je da se prinosi različitih poljoprivrednih kultura premaše dotadašnja ograničenja.

U 20. veku je poljoprivredu karakterisala povećana produktivnost, zamena ljudskog rada sa sintetičkim đubrivom i pesticidima, selektivan uzgoj i mehanizacija. Razvoj poljoprivrede u najnovijem dobu je, vezan uz politička pitanja kao što su zagađenje voda, biогорiva, genetski modifikovani organizmi, carinske tarife i poljoprivredne subvencije. U poslednje vreme se u razvijenim zemljama Zapada beleži se sve snažniji pokret za odbacivanje mehanizovane poljoprivrede te „povratak prirodi” u obliku organske poljoprivrede.

Prvi stočari

Pastir u opakliji okrenutoj za kišovito vreme

Prvi stočari su pripitomljavali divlje životinje, držali ih u krdima i koristili za meso, mleko, kožu i vunu.^[9]^[10] Za razliku od njih, nomadski stočari neprestano premeštaju svoje životinje u potrazi za novim pašnjacima.

Neolitska revolucija

Nakon mlađeg kamenog doba, oko 8000. p. n. e. u neolitu su ljudi u zapadnoj Aziji počeli uzgajati useve. Na taj način moglo se prehraniti znatno više ljudi nego lovom i skupljanjem plodova.

Navodnjavanje

Drevnim ratarima je za uzgoj useva bila potrebna voda. Reke i sistemi veštački kanala imali su presudnu ulogu u drevnim agrikulturnim civilizacijama Egipta, doline Inda i Kine.

Tri poljoprivredne revolucije

Prva poljoprivredna revolucija: predstavlja početak obrade tla, s prvom obradom tla i počecima bilinogojstva počinje smišljeno unošenje „poremećaja” u prirodni sistem.
Druga poljoprivredna revolucija: predstavlja razdoblje korištenja lemešnog pluga i uvođenje plodoreda, smatra se do danas jedinim uravnoteženim razdobljem u razvitku svetske poljoprivrede.
Treća poljoprivedna revolucija (hemijska): temelji se na naučno proverenim zahvatima uzgoja bilja i stoke, koristi se velika količina različitih hemijskih sredstava; minimalno je sudelovanje ljudske radne snage.

Agrarna revolucija

Od 1750. niz velikih promena najavio je eru moderne poljoprivrede. Ključne novine su bile uzgoj na veliko, intezivan uzgoj životinja i poboljšanje poljoprivrednih tehnika kao što je četverogodišnja izmena kulture, a sve su se najpre počele primenjivati u Britaniji.

Selektivan uzgoj

Robert Bejkvel (1725—1795), peti vojvoda od Bedforda (1765—1802), te ostali britanski uzgajivači tokom agrarne revolucije na svojim su farmama i gazdinstvima primenjivali selektivan uzgoj da bi razvili veće i zdravije životinje, na primer goveda, koze, ovce i ćurke, s većim prinosom mesa i mleka. Kasniji su uzgajivači koristili taj isti sitem kod uzgoja životinja za određene namene. Na primer, bik Camargue uzgajao se samo za borbe.

Izmena kulture

Tokom agrarne revolucije poljoprivednici su otkrili da ako na parceli iz godine u godinu izmenjuju kulture kao što su repa, detelina, ječam i pšenica, neće morati zemlju ostavljati na ugaru. Korenaste kulture, kao što je repa, obogaćuju tlo pa tako i kvalitet sledeće berbe.

Srednji vek

Zemljoradnici u srednjevekovnoj Evropi delili su zemljište oko sela u tri polja. Svaka je porodica u svakom polju imala njivu od 12 hektara. Svi su se prdržavali istog trogodišnjeg ciklusa obrade zemlje: svake godine jedno je polje bilo na ugaru (odmaralo se) kako bi se obnovile hranjive materije u tlu, a na preostala dva uzgajao se ječam, zob, raž ili pšenicu.

Ograđeno tlo

Od početka 16. veka engleski zemljoposednici počeli su da zajedničko zemljište ograđuju ogradama, rovovima ili živicama i da ga pretvaraju u privatno vlasništvo. Tako je kooperativna srednjevekovna obrada zemlje prerasla u sastav privatnog vlasništva, a zemljovlasnici su donosili sve odluke o tome što će uzgajati.

Čarls Turnip Taunšend

Jedan od preteča agrarne revolucije, vikont Taunšend (1674—1738) napustio je sjajnu političku karijeru i posvetio se poljoprivredi. Popularisao je četverogodišnju izmenu useva i među prvima je počeo da kao đubrivo koristiti smešu gline i krečnјаka. Unapredio je uzgoj repe, kao krmiva kojim se stoka hranila tokom zime i po tom je dobio nadimak „Turnip” (Repa).

Zelena revolucija

Током 1960-ih dogodila se zelena revolucija. Izumljene su mnoge visokorodne vrste radi povećenja proizvodnje pšenice i riže, posebno u gusto naseljenim zemljama kao što su Indija i Kina. Kritičari su tvrdili da takav proces uništava okolinu zbog prekomerne upotrebe veštački đubriva i kocentrovanja na samo nekoliko vrsta. U novije vreme poljoprivednici ponovo otkrivaju tradicionalne metode uzgoja i korištenja organskih đubriva i pesticida.

Nove poljoprivredne mašine

Mašine kao što je vršalica, koju je 1786. konstruirao škotski izumitelj Endru Mikl olakšali su ukupan rad i povećeli produktivnost. Vršalice, koje su odvajale zrno od slame, postale su delotvornije nakon 1850. kad su radnici na farmama priključili parne mašine, koji su ih pokretali.

Vidi još

Reference

^ „Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco: My Gallery”. Архивирано из оригинала 26. 09. 2007. г. Приступљено 05. 06. 2007. Ushabti of Sennedjem from The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco
^ Hillman, G.C. "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D.R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, UCL Books, London, pp. 159–203; Sato, Y. (2003) "Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin". In Y. Yasuda (ed.) The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture. Roli Books. 1996. стр. 196. , New Delhi
^ Gerritsen, R. (2008). Australia and the Origins of Agriculture. Archaeopress. стр. 29—30.
^ „The Development of Agriculture”. National Geographic. 2016. Архивирано из оригинала 14. 04. 2016. г. Приступљено 15. 06. 2016.
^ Larson, G.; Piperno, D.R.; Allaby, R.G.; Purugganan, M.D.; Andersson, L.; Arroyo-Kalin, M.; Barton, L.; Climer Vigueira, C.; Denham, T.; Dobney, K.; Doust, A.N.; Gepts, P.; Gilbert, M.T.P.; Gremillion, K.J.; Lucas, L.; Lukens, L.; Marshall, F.B.; Olsen, K.M.; Pires, J.C.; Richerson, P.J.; Rubio De Casas, R.; Sanjur, O.I.; Thomas, M.G.; Fuller, D.Q. (2014). „Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (17): 6139—6146. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6139L. PMC 4035915 . PMID 24757054. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323964111 .
^ Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. 2001. ISBN 978-0-262-19449-5. by Vaclav Smil.
^ Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 978-0-307-35178-4.
^ Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control and Energy Conservation. 1979. ISBN 978-0-8155-0734-5. by Marshall Sittig Noyes Data Corp., N.J.
^ Larson, Greger; Dobney, Keith; Albarella, Umberto; Fang, Meiying; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth; Robins, Judith; Lowden, Stewart; Finlayson, Heather; Brand, Tina (11. 03. 2005). „Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication”. Science. 307 (5715): 1618—1621. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1618L. PMID 15761152. S2CID 39923483. doi:10.1126/science.1106927.
^ Larson, Greger; Albarella, Umberto; Dobney, Keith; Rowley-Conwy, Peter; Schibler, Jörg; Tresset, Anne; Vigne, Jean-Denis; Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Schlumbaum, Angela (25. 09. 2007). „Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (39): 15276—15281. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415276L. PMC 1976408 . PMID 17855556. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703411104 .

Literatura

Pregledi

Civitello, Linda (29. 3. 2011). Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470403716.
Federico, Giovanni (2005). Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000. Princeton University Press. highly quantitative
Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (4. јун 2011) (1999)
Heiser, Charles B (1990). Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food. W.H. Freeman.
Herr, Richard, ed (1993). Themes in Rural History of the Western World. Iowa State University Press.
Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart (2006). A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis. Monthly Review Press. Marxist perspective
Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and history: the influence of hunger on human history (Harper, 1939)
Tauger, Mark (2008). Agriculture in World History. Routledge.

Premoderna poljoprireda

Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000 (Springer, 2009)
Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds (2015). The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A World with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. Cambridge University Press.
Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds (1999). Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern Times. Oxford University Press.
Cohen, M.N (1977). The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture. Yale University Press.
Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial Era (Sagem 1981)
Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel. W.W. Norton.
Duncan-Jones, Richard (1982). Economy of the Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press.
Habib, Irfan (2013). Agrarian System of Mughal India (3rd изд.). Oxford University Press.
Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, (Routledge, 1996)
Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard (1995). Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction. Routledge.
Lee, Mabel Ping-hua (1921). The Economic History of China: With Special Reference to Agriculture. Columbia University.
Murray, Jacqueline (1970). The First European Agriculture. Edinburgh University Press.
Oka, H-I (2012). Origin of Cultivated Rice. Elsevier.
Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995)
Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC to present.
Stevens, C.E. „Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire”. Cambridge Economic History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. 1971.
Teall, John L. (1959). „The grain supply of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1025”. Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 13: 87—139. JSTOR 1291130. doi:10.2307/1291130.
Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003)

Moderna poljoprireda

Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012)
Kerridge, Eric (1969). „The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered”. Agricultural History. 43 (4): 463—476. JSTOR 4617724. , in Britain, 1750–1850
Ludden, David, ed (1999). New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia. Cambridge. Архивирано из оригинала 04. 06. 2011. г. Приступљено 15. 12. 2018. .
McNeill, William H. (1999). „How the Potato Changed the World's History”. Social Research. 66 (1): 67—83. JSTOR 40971302. PMID 22416329.
Mintz, Sidney (1986). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. Penguin.
Reader, John (2008). Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History. Heinemann. a standard scholarly history
Salaman, Redcliffe N (2010). The History and Social Influence of the Potato,. Cambridge.

Evropa

Ambrosoli, Mauro (1997). The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe, 1350–1850. Cambridge University Press.
Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds (2012). War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s. Routledge.
Brown, Jonathan (1987). Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947. Manchester University Press.
Clark, Gregory (2007). „The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic growth, England 1209–1869” (PDF). Economic History Review. 60 (1): 97—135. S2CID 154325999. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00358.x.
Dovring, Folke, ed (1965). Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey of recent agrarian history. Springer.
Gras, Norman (1925). A history of agriculture in Europe and America. Crofts.
Harvey, Nigel (1980). The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales. HarperCollins.
Hoffman, Philip T (1996). Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815. Princeton University Press.
Hoyle, Richard W. (2013). The Farmer in England, 1650–1980. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781138272255.
Kussmaul, Ann (1990). A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840. Cambridge University Press.
Langdon, John (1986). Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500. Cambridge University Press.
McNeill, William H. (1948). „The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland”. Journal of Modern History. 21 (3): 218—221. JSTOR 1876068. S2CID 145099646. doi:10.1086/237272.
Moon, David (2014). The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's Grasslands, 1700–1914. Oxford University Press.
Slicher van Bath, B.H. The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward Arnold, reprint, 1963)
Thirsk, Joan; et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales. Cambridge University Press. (8 vols., 1978)
Williamson, Tom (2002). Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870. Liverpool University Press.
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds (2011). Food and war in twentieth century Europe. Ashgate.

Severna Amerika

Cochrane, Willard W (1993). The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis. University of Minnesota P.
Fite, Gilbert C. (1983). „American Farmers: The New Minority”. Annals of Iowa. 46 (7): 553—555. doi:10.17077/0003-4827.8923. Архивирано из оригинала 03. 10. 2017. г. Приступљено 15. 12. 2018.
Gras, Norman (1925). A history of agriculture in Europe and America. F.S. Crofts.
Gray, L.C. History of agriculture in the southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933) Volume I online; Volume 2
Hart, John Fraser (2004). The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. University of Virginia Press.
Hurt, R. Douglas (2002). American Agriculture: A Brief History. Purdue University Press.
Mundlak, Yair (2005). „Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American Agriculture”. Journal of Economic Literature. 43 (4): 989—1024. doi:10.1257/002205105775362005.
O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping, and Eating. University Press of Kansas. 2015.
Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed (1960). Readings in the history of American agriculture. University of Illinois Press.
Robert, Joseph C (1949). The story of tobacco in America. University of North Carolina Press.
Russell, Howard (1981). A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England. UP of New England.
Russell, Peter A (2012). How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century. McGill-Queen's UP.
Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (Da Capo, 1970 [1936])
Schlebecker John T (1972). Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972. Iowa State University Press.
Weeden, William Babcock (1891). Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789. Houghton, Mifflin.

Spoljašnje veze

Early Agricultural Remnants and Technical Heritage is a multidisciplinary project investigating the development of non-industrial agricultural techniques, with a focus on Europe.
Tracing the Evolution of Organic/Sustainable Agriculture Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (28. мај 2010) A Selected and Annotated Bibliography. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, National Agricultural Library.
"The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture" from Cornell University Library

[1] „Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco: My Gallery”. Архивирано из оригинала 26. 09. 2007. г. Приступљено 05. 06. 2007. Ushabti of Sennedjem from The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco

[2] Hillman, G.C. "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D.R. Harris (ed.) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, UCL Books, London, pp. 159–203; Sato, Y. (2003) "Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin". In Y. Yasuda (ed.) The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture. Roli Books. 1996. стр. 196. , New Delhi

[Gerritsen2008-3] Gerritsen, R. (2008). Australia and the Origins of Agriculture. Archaeopress. стр. 29—30.

[NatGeog-4] „The Development of Agriculture”. National Geographic. 2016. Архивирано из оригинала 14. 04. 2016. г. Приступљено 15. 06. 2016.

[5] Larson, G.; Piperno, D.R.; Allaby, R.G.; Purugganan, M.D.; Andersson, L.; Arroyo-Kalin, M.; Barton, L.; Climer Vigueira, C.; Denham, T.; Dobney, K.; Doust, A.N.; Gepts, P.; Gilbert, M.T.P.; Gremillion, K.J.; Lucas, L.; Lukens, L.; Marshall, F.B.; Olsen, K.M.; Pires, J.C.; Richerson, P.J.; Rubio De Casas, R.; Sanjur, O.I.; Thomas, M.G.; Fuller, D.Q. (2014). „Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (17): 6139—6146. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.6139L. PMC 4035915 . PMID 24757054. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323964111 .

[enriching-6] Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production. 2001. ISBN 978-0-262-19449-5. by Vaclav Smil.

[hager-7] Hager, Thomas (2008). The Alchemy of Air. Harmony Books, New York. ISBN 978-0-307-35178-4.

[8] Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control and Energy Conservation. 1979. ISBN 978-0-8155-0734-5. by Marshall Sittig Noyes Data Corp., N.J.

[9] Larson, Greger; Dobney, Keith; Albarella, Umberto; Fang, Meiying; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth; Robins, Judith; Lowden, Stewart; Finlayson, Heather; Brand, Tina (11. 03. 2005). „Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication”. Science. 307 (5715): 1618—1621. Bibcode:2005Sci...307.1618L. PMID 15761152. S2CID 39923483. doi:10.1126/science.1106927.

[10] Larson, Greger; Albarella, Umberto; Dobney, Keith; Rowley-Conwy, Peter; Schibler, Jörg; Tresset, Anne; Vigne, Jean-Denis; Edwards, Ceiridwen J.; Schlumbaum, Angela (25. 09. 2007). „Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (39): 15276—15281. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10415276L. PMC 1976408 . PMID 17855556. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703411104 .

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