2006年,梅雷迪斯·伦德(Meredith Render)在回顧多宗有關歧視的判決時寫道:「自1964年民權法案生效以來,性/別的觀念起了不少變化,令法案中性別歧視的涵意也隨之變遷」[26]:135。朱莉·格林伯格(Julie Greenberg)在1999年的一篇文章中提倡把「sex」的法律定義延伸,令之更為強調「自我性別認同」。他寫道:「大多法律條文都採用『sex』一詞,但法院以及立法和行政機關往往在解釋法規時以『gender』取代之」[27]:270, 274。在J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.案中,美国最高法院為「平等保護條款是否禁止建基於社會性別的歧視」頒下判決,大多數意見認為需承認「我國在性別歧視上有著一段難堪的過去……提醒我們需嚴格考慮所有建基於社會性別的分類是否合理……當各州行為者只因對社會性別的刻板印象而要求某人無因迴避時,他們就在認同和加深男女相對能力不同的偏見」[28]。
自1970年代起,女性主义理论在探討性別議題時的用字便出現了爭議。1974年出版的《Masculine/Feminine or Human》中,其作者使用了「內在的性別」(innate gender)和「習得的性別角色」(learned sex role)這兩個詞[76],然而到了1978年的版本中,「sex」和「gender」的用法卻倒過來了[77]。到了1980年,大部分女性主義的文章都會將「gender」僅僅用作社會文化上性別的自我認同,以便與生物上的性別(sex)區分開來。
社會學家通常認為社會性別是一種社會建構的產物。此外不少研究者只把性別視為生物的,並否定其有任何的社會或文化建構成分在內。此一情況在女性主義者當中尤其普遍。比方說,性學家約翰·曼尼把生物性别(biological sex)及性別角色(gender as a role)區分開來使用[56];社會學及社會政策教授安·奥克利(英语:Ann Oakley)同樣稱:「人們必须承认性别的恒定性,但同時必须承认社會性別的可变性」[90]。世界衛生組織表示:「性別是指定義某人是男是女的生物生理特徵」,而社會性別則「指社会构建的,并被特定社会认为适合于男性和女性的角色、行为、活动和特性」[91]。在上述語境下,性別是指生物學(自然科學)研究上的分類,而社會性別則是指人文社科的研究重心之一。女性主義生物學家林达·伯克認為「生物學上的事並非可以出現轉變的」[92],因此該些學者視性別為恆定的,而社會性別則會隨社會結構的不同而發生變化。
「現有廣泛證據證明男性的大腦比起女性大約8-10%(Filipek et al., 1994; Nopoulos et al., 2000; Passe et al., 1997a,b; Rabinowicz et al., 1999; Witelson et al., 1995)」[123][124]。但較與腦部功能有關的是其結構及神經連接方式。新墨西哥大學及加利福尼亞大學爾灣分校的研究者以腦造影的方式研究了男和女的腦部,發現男性比起女性擁有更多跟一般智力有關的灰質,女性則比起男性擁有更多跟智力有關的白質—— 男性的灰質:白質比比起女性高4%[123]。
^Lindqvist, Anna; Sendén, Marie Gustafsson; Renström, Emma A. What is gender, anyway: a review of the options for operationalising gender. Psychology & Sexuality. 2021-10-02, 12 (4): 332–344. S2CID 213397968. doi:10.1080/19419899.2020.1729844.
^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Bates, Nancy; Chin, Marshall; Becker, Tara , 编. Measuring Sex, Gender Identity, and Sexual Orientation. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 2022. ISBN 978-0-309-27510-1. PMID 35286054. S2CID 247432505. doi:10.17226/26424.
^ 9.09.1Kevin L. Nadal, The Sage Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender (2017, ISBN1483384276), p. 401: "Most cultures currently construct their societies based on the understanding of gender binary—the two gender categorizations (male and female). Such societies divide their population based on biological sex assigned to individuals at birth to begin the process of gender socialization."
^O'Halloran, Kerry. Sexual orientation, gender identity and international human rights law: common law perspectives. London. 2020: 22–28, 328–329. ISBN 978-0-429-44265-0. OCLC 1110674742.
^ 22.022.1Holmes, Brooke. Introduction. Gender: Antiquity and its Legacy. Oxford University Press. 2012: 1–2. ISBN 978-0195380828. For as it turns out, what we call gender is a fairly recent concept. It's not that people in Ancient Greece and Rome didn't talk and think and argue about the categories of male and female, masculine and feminine and the nature and extent of sexual difference. They did in [ways] both similar to and very different from our own. The problem is that they didn't have the concept of gender that has grown so influential in the humanities and the social sciences over the past four decades.
^Holmes, Brooke. Introduction. Gender: Antiquity and its Legacy. Oxford University Press. 2012: 3–4. ISBN 978-0195380828. The concept of gender, as I've just said, is recent. So what is it and where does it come from? Simone de Beauvoir famously wrote: 'one is not born, but rather becomes, woman'...But the term 'gender', which had long been associated with grammar, only started to move towards what she was describing in the later 1950s and 1960s.
^Money, John; Hampson, Joan G; Hampson, John. An Examination of Some Basic Sexual Concepts: The Evidence of Human Hermaphroditism. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. October 1955, 97 (4): 301–19. PMID 13260820. By the term, gender role, we mean all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman, respectively. It includes, but is not restricted to sexuality in the sense of eroticism. Gender role is appraised in relation to the following: general mannerisms, deportment and demeanor, play preferences and recreational interests; spontaneous topics of talk in unprompted conversation and casual comment; content of dreams, daydreams, and fantasies; replies to oblique inquiries and projective tests; evidence of erotic practices and, finally, the person's own replies to direct inquiry.
^gender, n.. Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford English Dictionary: Sense 3(b). [2017-01-05]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-21).
^Snow, D.A. and Oliver, P.E. (1995). "Social Movements and Collective Behavior: Social Psychological Dimensions and Considerations", pp. 571–600 in Karen Cook, Gary A. Fine, and James S.House (eds.) Sociological Perspectives on Social Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
^Taifel, H. & Turner, J.C. (1986). "The social identity of intergroup relations", pp. 7–24 in S. Worchel & W.G. Austin (eds.) The psychology of intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall. ISBN0-8185-0278-9.
^ 56.056.1Money, J. Hermaphroditism, gender and precocity in hyperadrenocorticism: Psychologic findings. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. 1955, 96 (6): 253–264. PMID 14378807.
^Maria Llorente, Culture, Heritage, and Diversity in Older Adult Mental Health Care (2018, ISBN1615372059), p. 184: "Historically, in many, if not most, cultures, gender traditionally has been conceived as binary, but the modern and preferred understanding is that gender actually occurs on a spectrum."
^Marie L. Miville, Angela D. Ferguson, Handbook of Race-Ethnicity and Gender in Psychology (2014, ISBN1461488605), p. 47: "In Western societies, as in many regions of the world, gender has been historically conceptualized and constructed as a binary (being either "male" or "female") largely determined by both biological (genetic and hormonal) and social cognitive (social, cultural reinforcement, and modeling of gendered behaviour)."
^Kehoe, Alice B.Appropriate Terms. SAA Bulletin. Society for American Archaeology 16(2), UC-Santa Barbara. 2002 [2019-05-01]. ISSN 0741-5672. (原始内容存档于2004-11-05). At the conferences that produced the book, Two-Spirited People, I heard several First Nations people describe themselves as very much unitary, neither "male" nor "female," much less a pair in one body. Nor did they report an assumption of duality within one body as a common concept within reservation communities; rather, people confided dismay at the Western proclivity for dichotomies. Outside Indo-European-speaking societies, "gender" would not be relevant to the social personae glosses "men" and "women," and "third gender" likely would be meaningless. The unsavory word "berdache" certainly ought to be ditched (Jacobs et al. 1997:3–5), but the urban American neologism "two-spirit" can be misleading.
^Nanda, Serena (1998). Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN0-534-50903-7
^Reddy, Gayatri (2005). With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India. (Worlds of Desire: The Chicago Series on Sexuality, Gender, and Culture), University of Chicago Press (2005). ISBN0-226-70756-3
^ 80.080.1Hurst, C. (2007) Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. 6th Edition. pp. 131, 139–142
^Schwalbe, M. (2005). The Sociologically Examined Life: Pieces of the Conversation Third Edition. pp. 22–23 ISBN0-07-282579-0
^Smith, N. and Stanley, E. (2011). Captive Genders. 1st ed. Edinburgh: AK Press.
^Center for American Progress, (2016). Unjust: How The Broken Criminal Justice System Fails LGBT People. Washington.
^Lydon et al., "Coming Out of Concrete Closets: A Report on Black & Pink's National LGBTQ Prisoner Survey."
^Dworkin, Andrea (1995). "My Life as a Writer", pp. 33–34 in Dworkin, Andrea Life and Death: Unapologetic Writings on the Continuing War Against Women. New York: Free Press. ISBN0-7432-3626-2
^Hawkesworth, Mary. Engendering political science: An immodest proposal. Politics & Gender. 2005, 1 (1): 141–156. doi:10.1017/s1743923x0523101x.
^Birke, Lynda (2001). "In Pursuit of Difference: Scientific Studies of Women and Men," Muriel Lederman and Ingrid Bartsch eds., The Gender and Science Reader, New York: Routledge. p. 320.
^Nicholson, Linda. "Interpreting Gender". Signs. Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 1994, 20 (1): 79–105. JSTOR 3174928. doi:10.1086/494955.
^Helen King. 2013. The One-Sex Body on Trial: The Classical and Early Modern Evidence. Farnham: Ashgate. 978-1-4094-6335-1
^Joan Cadden. 1993. Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture. Cambridge University Press.
^Michael Stolberg. 2003. "A Woman Down to her Bones. The Anatomy of Sexual Difference in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries." Isis, 94: 274-299.
^Genital Development. Handbook for Parents. Consortium on the Management of Disorders of Sex Development; Intersex Society of America. 2006 [2020-06-16]. (原始内容存档于2020-01-25) –通过dsdguidelines.org.
^Ball, GF; Balthazart, J; McCarthy, MM. Is it useful to view the brain as a secondary sexual characteristic?. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. October 2014,. 46 Pt 4 (46 Pt 4): 628–38. PMID 25195165. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.08.009.
^Lepowsky, Maria; Chafetz, JS. The Encyclopedic Entry of Gender. 2008 –通过Reference.com; Dictionary.com.}
^Traut, W.; Sahara, K.; Marec, F. Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination in Lepidoptera. Sexual Development. 2007, 1 (6): 332–46. PMID 18391545. doi:10.1159/000111765. The speciose insect order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) and their closest relatives, Trichoptera (caddis flies), share a female-heterogametic sex chromosome system
^Lopes, AM; Ross, N; Close, J; Dagnall, A; Amorim, A; Crow, TJ. Inactivation status of PCDH11X: Sexual dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain. Human Genetics. 2006, 119 (3): 267–275. PMID 16425037. doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0134-0.
^Mikkola, Mari. Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender. Zalta, Edward N. (编). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2016. Stanford University. 2008-05-12. (原始内容存档于2020-01-25).
^Christopher, Karen, et. all. The Gender Gap in Poverty in Modern Nations: Single Motherhood, The Market, and the State. University of California Press.
^ 152.0152.1Cagatay, Nilufer. "Trade, Gender and Poverty." pp. 4–8. United Nations.
^ 157.0157.1157.2Grothoff, G. E.; Kempf-Leonard, K.; Mullins, C. Gender and Juvenile Drug Abuse: A General Strain Theory Perspective. Women & Criminal Justice. 2014, 24: 22–43. doi:10.1080/08974454.2013.842519.
^Trnka, Radek. Gender Differences in Human Interpersonal Conflicts: A Reply to. Evolutionary Psychology. 2013, 11 (4): 147470491301100. ISSN 1474-7049. doi:10.1177/147470491301100401.
^Olsson, Lennart et al. (2014) "Livelihoods and Poverty" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), pp. 793–832 in Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Ed. C.B. Field et al. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
^Birkmann, Joern et al. (2014)"Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), pp. 1039–1099 in Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Ed. C.B. Field et al. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
^ 164.0164.1164.2MacGregor, S. A stranger silence still: The need for feminist social research on climate change. The Sociological Review. 2010, 57 (2_suppl): 124–140. doi:10.1111/j.1467-954X.2010.01889.x.
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For other places with the same name, see Sveti Juraj (disambiguation). Village in CroatiaSveti JurajVillageSveti JurajCoordinates: 44°55′32″N 14°55′08″E / 44.92556°N 14.91889°E / 44.92556; 14.91889Country CroatiaCountyLika-Senj CountyMunicipalitySenjArea[1] • Total8.8 km2 (3.4 sq mi)Population (2021)[2] • Total542 • Density62/km2 (160/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • S...
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Gin Ganga – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) River in Sri LankaGin GangaGin Ganga at DeniyayaNative nameගිං ගඟLocationCountrySri LankaPhysical characteristicsSourceSinha...
بورصة قبرص النوع سوق الأوراق المالية[1]، وعمل تجاري، والسوق المنظمة الدولة قبرص المدينة نيقوسيا[2][1] المقر الرئيسي نيقوسيا تاريخ التأسيس 29 مارس 1996[3] المالك مجلس وزراء قبرص[4] العملات EUR موقع ويب الموقع الرسمي[5][1] تعد�...