在1991年海湾战争期间及其后,美国发出信号鼓励大家起义,反对萨达姆·侯赛因。复兴党是伊拉克的执政党,而萨达姆自1979年通过内部斗争上台以后,一直对伊拉克进行独裁统治。1991年2月5日,乔治·H·W·布什(老布什)在美国之音上发表讲话称:“停止流血还有另一种方式:那就是伊拉克军队和伊拉克人民自己动手,迫使独裁者萨达姆·侯赛因退位,然后遵从联合国决议,重新加入爱好和平国家的大家庭。”[1][2]1991年2月24日,即停火协议签署几天后,中情局资助和运营的电台“自由伊拉克之声”(Voice of Free Iraq),号召伊拉克人民起来反对萨达姆。[3]海湾战争于1991年3月1日结束,第二天布什再次呼吁推翻萨达姆·侯赛因。[4]美国希望发生政变,但战争刚结束,伊拉克各地就爆发了一系列起义。[5]:XX两次最大的叛乱是由北部的伊拉克库尔德人和南部的什叶派民兵领导的。叛军以为他们会得到美国的直接援助,但美国并未打算向叛军提供援助。什叶派的起义被伊拉克军队镇压,而佩什梅格则较为成功,使伊拉克库尔德人(英语:Kurds in Iraq)获得了自治权。布什政府在鼓励叛军起义之后并没有帮助他们,因此遭到了严厉批评。美国担心,如果萨达姆倒台,伊拉克垮台,伊朗将实力大增。[6]科林·鲍威尔在谈到他担任美国参谋长联席会议主席时写道:“我们的实际意图是让巴格达有足够的力量生存下来,以作为对伊朗的威胁,因为伊朗仍然对美国怀有强烈的敌意。”[4]与此同时,老布什说,美国从未打算帮助任何人。[7]
中情局发动了一场针对伊拉克政府的政变行动,代号为DBACHILLES,并在行动中招募了伊亚德·阿拉维。阿拉维领导了一个反对萨达姆·侯赛因政府的伊拉克人组织,名为伊拉克民族协议(英语:Iraqi National Accord)。该组织中有伊拉克军事和情报官员,但被忠于伊拉克政府的人渗透了。[24][25][26]在1992至1995年间,中情局同样是利用伊亚德·阿拉维及其组织,在巴格达指挥了一场政府破坏和轰炸行动。[27]中情局的爆炸活动可能只是对中情局地面资源网络行动能力的测试,而不是打算发动政变本身。[27]不过,阿拉维曾在1996年企图发动政变推翻萨达姆·侯赛因。政变没有成功,但伊亚德·阿拉维后来被伊拉克临时管理委员会任命为伊拉克总理。2003年3月由美国领导的盟军入侵和占领伊拉克之后,成立了该委员会。[28]
美国在刚果战争之前和战争期间暗中支持卢旺达。美国认为是时候出现“新一代非洲领导人(英语:New generation of African leaders)”了,例如乌干达的保罗·卡加梅和约韦里·穆塞韦尼,这也是美国此前停止支持蒙博托的部分原因。[37]美国派兵训练FPR,并在1995年战前将FPR指挥官带到美国进行训练。战争期间,一群非洲裔美国雇佣兵加入了布卡武的叛军,他们自称是在一个非官方的美方任务中招募的。中情局与美军在乌干达建立了通讯,战争期间,多架飞机降落在基加利和恩德培,声称是“为种族灭绝受害者提供援助”;然而,有人指控他们为FPR带来了军事和通讯用品。与此同时,美国还从国际救援委员会(IRC)获得了反蒙博托的支持。[38]
^Gordon, Joy. Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions [隐形战争:美国与伊拉克制裁]. 哈佛大学出版社. 2010. (原始内容存档于2018-04-27) (英语)Additional U.S. government officials' statements setting Saddam Hussein's ouster as the precondition for the cessation of sanctions against Iraq, including statements by Robert Gates, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency[其他美国政府官员关于将萨达姆·侯赛因下台作为停止对伊拉克制裁先决条件的声明,包括中央情报局局长罗伯特·盖茨的声明]
^参阅:A Gulf War Exclusive: President Bush Talking with David Frost [海湾战争独家:布什总统与大卫·弗罗斯特的谈话]. YouTube. [2017-02-26]. (原始内容存档于2021-10-09) (英语). George H. W. Bush: Everybody felt that Saddam Hussein could not stay in office—certainly not stay in office as long as he's stayed in office. I miscalculated—I thought he'd be gone. But I wasn't alone! People in the Arab world felt, with unanimity, that he would be out of there. I think all observers felt that (event occurs at 45:14).[(老布什:)每个人都认为萨达姆·侯赛因不能留任——当然,我是说如果他还在任的话。我估计错了——我以为他会离开。但并不是我一个这样看!阿拉伯世界的人们一致认为他会离开那里。我想所有的观察者都这样认为。(出现在45:14)]
^ 27.027.1Brinkley, Joel. Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks [前中情局助手说伊拉克领导人在90年代的袭击中帮助组织]. 纽约时报. 2004-06-09 [2022-08-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-09-29) (英语). The Iraqi government at the time claimed that the bombs, including one it said exploded in a movie theater, resulted in many civilian casualties ... One former Central Intelligence Agency officer who was based in the region, Robert Baer, recalled that a bombing during that period 'blew up a school bus; school children were killed.' Mr. Baer ... said he did not recall which resistance group might have set off that bomb. Other former intelligence officials said Dr. Allawi's organization was the only resistance group involved in bombings and sabotage at that time. But one former senior intelligence official recalled that 'bombs were going off to no great effect.' 'I don't recall very much killing of anyone,' the official said.[当时的伊拉克政府声称,这些炸弹造成了许多平民伤亡,其中一枚炸弹据说是在电影院爆炸的……驻该地区的一名前中央情报局官员罗伯特·贝尔(英语:Robert Baer)回忆说,其间的一次爆炸“摧毁了一辆校车;学童丧生。”贝尔先生……说他不记得那枚炸弹可能是哪个抵抗组织引爆的。其他前情报官员说,阿拉维博士的组织是当时唯一参与爆炸和破坏活动的抵抗组织。但一位前高级情报官员回忆说,“炸弹爆炸没有造成多大影响。”“我不记得有很多人丧生”,该官员说。]
^Walter E. Kretchik; Robert F. Baumann; John T. Fishel. A Concise History of the U.S. Army in Operation Uphold Democracy [美国陆军维护民主行动简史]. 萊文沃思堡: 美国陆军指挥参谋学院出版社. 1998: 96、98 (英语).
^Lemarchand, René. The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa [中非暴力动态]. 费城: 宾夕法尼亚大学. 2009: 32 (英语).
^ 35.035.135.2Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006 [非洲大混战:刚果与地区地缘政治,1996-2006]. 剑桥: 剑桥大学出版社. 2009 (英语).
^Pomfret, John. Rwandans Led Revolt in Congo; Defense Minister Says Arms, Troops Supplied for Anti-Mobutu Drive [卢旺达人在刚果领导起义;国防部长说,为反蒙博托行动提供了武器和部队]. 华盛顿邮报. 1997-07-09: A1 (英语).
^Kennes, Erik. The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need [刚果民主共和国:贪婪的结构、需求的网络]. Cynthia J. Arnson; I. William Zartman (编). Rethinking the Economics of War [重新思考战争经济学]. 华盛顿哥伦比亚特区: 伍德罗·威尔逊国际学者中心. 2005: 147 (英语).
^鲍勃·伍德沃德. Bush at War [战争中的布什(英语:Bush at War)]. 2002: 122. ISBN 0-7432-0473-5(英语). The U.S. action would not succeed if the Northern Alliance took over or even seemed to take over the country. The Pashtun majority would not accept that.[如果北方联盟接管,甚至是似乎接管该国,美国的行动都不算成功。普什图人多数不会接受这一点。]
^鲍勃·伍德沃德. Bush at War [战争中的布什(英语:Bush at War)]. 2002: 123. ISBN 0-7432-0473-5(英语). 'We want to hold off on the Taliban,' Tenet continued, 'So as not to destabilize Pakistan and our relationship with Pakistan.' There was still sufficient support for the Taliban in Pakistan that a military campaign conspicuously against the Taliban could undermine Musharraf.[“我们希望不针对塔利班,”特内特继续说,“以免破坏巴基斯坦的稳定以及我们与巴基斯坦的关系。”塔利班在巴基斯坦仍有足够的支持,明显针对塔利班的军事行动可能会削弱穆沙拉夫。]
^Report: Hamas boycott could be counter-productive [报告:哈马斯的抵制可能适得其反]. The Middle East Online. 2007-01-31 [2022-08-02]. (原始内容存档于2016-10-30) (英语). But the secret plan backfired, resulting in a further setback for American foreign policy under Bush. Instead of driving its enemies out of power, the U.S.-backed Fatah fighters inadvertently provoked Hamas to seize total control of Gaza.[但秘密计划适得其反,导致布什领导下的美国外交政策进一步受挫。美国支持的法塔赫战士非但没有将其敌人赶下台,反而无意中激怒了哈马斯,使其夺取了对加沙的完全控制。]
TransaeroТрансаэро IATA ICAO Kode panggil UN TSO TRANS SOVIET Didirikan1990Mulai beroperasi1991Berhenti beroperasi2015PenghubungBandar Udara Internasional DomodedovoProgram penumpang setiaTransaero Privilege ProgramArmada98 (+27 orders)Tujuan100Kantor pusatBandar Udara Internasional Domodedovo, Moskwa, RusiaTokoh utamaOlga Pleshakova (MD)Situs webwww.transaero.ru Transaero Airlines (Авиакомпания Трансаэро) itu sebuah maskapai penerbangan yang berbasis di Moskow, Rus…
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Exponentielle Abnahme einer Größe vom anfänglichen Wert N {\displaystyle N} mit der Zeit t {\displaystyle t} . Die Kurve folgt der Gleichung N ( t ) = N ⋅ e − t ⋅ ln ( 2 ) / T 1 / 2 {\displaystyle N(t)=N\cdot \mathrm {e} ^{-t\cdot \ln(2)/T_{1/2}}} . N {\displaystyle N} kann z. B. die anfängliche Zahl von radioaktiven Atomkernen in einer Probe sein. Die Halbwertszeit oder Halbwertzeit[1] (abgekürzt HWZ, Formelzeichen meist T 1 / 2 {\displaystyle T_{…