腦內結構的改變、經驗和知識的增加以及不斷變化的社會需求,皆会使認知能力快速發展(參見腦部發展一節)。儘管該些變化發生的時機因人而異,但是以下所探討的是起始於青春期,或是過了青春期不久后开始發生的變化;当中一些在青春期以后亦会繼續發展。双系统模型(英语:Dual systems model)此一理論指出,社會情緒系統的發展與大腦認知控制系統之間的不平衡會使青少年更勇於採取冒險行為[68]。
讓·麥克法蘭(英语:Jean Macfarlane)於1927年在加州大學柏克萊分校創立了人類發展研究所(Institute of Human Development),其前身為兒童福利研究所(Institute of Child Welfare)[91]。該研究所對於健康發展研究有着重大貢獻[91]。該研究所於大萧条至二戰前此一獨特成長環境下進行了多項關於人類發展的研究。由哈羅德·瓊斯(Harold Jones)和赫伯特·斯托爾茲(Herbert Stolz)於1931年發起的《奧克蘭成長研究》(Oakland Growth Study)則旨在研究生活在奧克蘭地區的兒童的身體、智力和社交發展。該些數據的收集工作始於1932年,终於1981年,使得研究者能夠收集从青少年过渡至成年的研究對象的縱向數據。此外讓·麥克法蘭亦發起了《柏克萊指導研究》(Berkeley Guidance Study),從社會經濟和家庭背景角度分析考察兒童的發展[92]。格倫·埃爾德(Glen Elder)參考了該些研究後,於20世紀60年代提出青少年發展的人生歷程理論,並制定了青少年發展的幾個通则。「時間和地點」通则指出個人發展受制於他們成長的時間和地點;「時間重要性」通则是指人生大事对个人發展的影響取決於「它們發生於何時」這點。「人生聯繫理念」则表明人的發展同時受制於当事人所屬的關係網絡;「人的能动性」通则則認為,人的人生歷程是經由当事人在歷史和社會網絡背景下所作出的選擇和行動來構建的[93]。
美国青少年研究学会(Society for Research on Adolescence)於1984年正式成立,成為世界首個專門負責青少年研究的組織。学会首先處理的一些問題包括青少年的特質是先天还是后天的爭議、青少年跟他們所身处的環境如何互相影響、以及以文化、社交群體和歷史背景等因素來解釋青少年的行為[90]。
戀愛關係的盛行率會在青少年階段日趨上升。53%的15歲美國青少年在受訪前18個月存有一段維持至少1個月的戀愛關係[173]。據香港家庭計劃指導會於2011年為2934名中学3年級-7年級進行的調查顯示,49.6%的少男及52.3%的少女曾有與異性约会的经驗,平均首次约会年齡分別為13.3岁和13.5岁[174]:8、12。據一項在2013年發表於《柳葉刀》的英國全國調查顯示,英國兩性的平均首次性交年齡為17.0歲,16–24歲組則為16歲,24.4%的受訪者表示在16歲以前有從事過性交[175]。美国國家衛生統計中心(英语:National Center for Health Statistics)的特別表列顯示,2011年至2015年15-44岁的受訪者的平均首次性交年龄為17.2歲(不論男女)[176]。中國性學家潘綏銘於2015年進行的調查顯示,分別約40%和20%的男女於18歲時有过性交[177]。據香港家庭計劃指導會於2011年為年齡介乎18-27歲的青年進行的調查顯示,50%的男性及42%的女性從事過性交;已從事過性交的男性及女性平均首次性交的年齡分別為17.7歲及18.2歲[178]:49。根據中華民國衛生福利部國民健康署於2013年進行的調查顯示,高中職、五專學生13.8%有性經驗(男生13.1%、女生14.6%)[179]。關係持續時間亦會隨著青少年的成長而增加,這可由性成熟和維持戀愛關係所需的認知技能的發展來解釋,不過該些技能在青少年晚期以前都不會有很大的發展[180]。長期的戀愛關係高質量關係能使青少年獲得維繫日後的高質量關係所必需的技能[181]。總體而言,青少年的積極浪漫關係可帶來長期的好處。高質量的浪漫關係亦與成年早期的高度獻身有着關係[182],並可能跟自尊、自信和社交能力正相關[183][184];例如一個積極自信的青少年會認為自己是一位成功的伴侶,而消極的人則欠缺相關的自信[185]。青少年通常會依據種族、民族、受歡迎程度和身體吸引力這些標準來選擇約會對象[186]。然而個體的擇偶標準存有分歧:雖然大多數青少年會選擇與自身年齡相符的人作約會對象,但少男較傾向於選擇年齡比自身小的人作約會對象,而少女則傾向選擇年齡比自身大的[173]。
許多文化透過性方面的一些里程碑來定義當事人是否已過渡至成年,比如初精和初潮。除生物因素之外,青少年的性社會化进程高度取決於他們的文化對青少年或婚前性行為的態度。在美國更是如此,當地有評論簡單地認為青少年的「熾灼激素」最終會使其發生性行為,並視其為「令成年人深感憂慮的風險」[223]。由於美國青少年的性行為盛行率居高不下,所以在當地「性教育應如何開展」這點存有爭議,爭議點其中之一便是「學校應採用婚前守貞教育還是綜合性性教育(英语:comprehensive sex education)」,這可以追溯至國家所教的應是「宽容的還是具有限制性的」的爭論。拘束的性文化顯然會阻礙未婚青少年的性活動,並可能持續至青少年接受正式的通過儀禮為止。這些文化可能會透過隔離男女性、當眾羞辱和體罰這些方法,來試圖限制性行為的出現[169][224]。宽容的文化較能接纳青少年的性表象以及男女在公共和私人空間所發生的互動。同樣拘束但相關程度較低的文化可能會接納青少年某些方面的性表象以及男女在公共和私人空間所發生的互動,不過另一些則可能不獲接納。比如一些文化雖接納青少年的性行為,但不接納青少年懷孕;一些則不反對青少年性行為和青少年懷孕,只要在婚內發生便沒問題[225]。未婚青少年的性行為在某些較宽容的文化中遭到接納,甚至鼓勵[225]。不論當地文化是拘束的還是宽容的,對性表達的期望皆可能存有性別差異。不同文化對於該些期望的表達方式亦可能有所不同,有些通過法律,也有些通過約定俗成的規範表達之[226]。LGBT青年可能受到他者欺凌、歧視,並可能在向他者出櫃時受創[227]。因此青少年所處的文化的性態度圍可能會影響青少年的信念、生活方式和社會認知。
法律問題
飲用酒精飲料和使用非法藥物
盛行率
美國青少年非法藥物的使用率在20世紀90年代至2000年代中期持續下降後反升。大麻是繼酒精飲料之後最常被美國青少年濫用的藥物。美國國家藥物濫用研究所(英语:National Institute on Drug Abuse)所收集的數據指出,在2007-2011年期間美國青少年的大麻使用率從8年级学生的5.7-7.2%,升至10年级14.2-17.6%,然後在12年级則升至18.8-22.6%[228]。此外近年MDMA的使用率也在激增;在2010年至2011年間,美國高中學生的MDMA使用率從1.4%上升至2.3%[228]。銳舞文化的普及跟MDMA的高度使用很可能在某個程度上有關。
^Larson, R., & Wilson, S. (2004). Adolescence across place and time: Globalization and the changing pathways to adulthood. In R. Lerner and L. Steinberg Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley
^Arnett J. J. Emerging Adulthood: What Is It, and What Is It Good For?. Child Development Perspectives. 2007, 1 (2): 68–73. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x.
^Côté, J. E. (1996). Identity: A multidimensional analysis. In G. R. Adams, T. Gullotta & R. Montemeyer (Eds.), Issues in Adolescent Development (Vol. 6, pp. 130–180). New York, NY: Sage Publications.
^Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (1987). Moving into adolescence. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
^Marshal, W. (1978). Puberty. In F. Falkner & J.Tanner (Eds.), Human growth, Vol. 2. New York: Plenum.
^Sisk C. L.; Foster D.L. The neural basis of puberty and adolescence. Nature Neuroscience. 2004, 7 (10): 1040–1047. PMID 15452575. doi:10.1038/nn1326.
^Coe, C., Hayashi, K., & Levine, S. (1988). Hormones and behavior at puberty: Activation or concatenation. In M. Gunnar & W.A. Collins (Eds.), The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology, Vol. 21, pp. 17–41. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
^Anderson SE, Dallal GE, Must A. Relative weight and race influence average age at menarche: results from two nationally representative surveys of US girls studied 25 years apart. Pediatrics. April 2003, 111 (4 Pt 1): 844–50. PMID 12671122. doi:10.1542/peds.111.4.844.
^Hamilton-Fairley, Diana. Obstetrics and Gynaecology(PDF) Second. Blackwell Publishing. [2017-09-21]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2018-10-09).
^Abbassi V. Growth and normal puberty. Pediatrics. 1998, 102 (2 Pt 3): 507–11. PMID 9685454.
^ 34.034.134.234.334.4Garn, SM. Physical growth and development. In: Friedman SB, Fisher M, Schonberg SK., editors. Comprehensive Adolescent Health Care. St Louis: Quality Medical Publishing; 1992. Retrieved on 2009-02-20
^Susman, EJ; Dorn, LD; Schiefelbein, VL. Puberty, sexuality, and health. In: Lerner MA, Easterbrooks MA, Mistry J., editors. Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology. New York: Wiley; 2003. Retrieved on 2009-02-20
^ 42.042.1Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^ 43.043.1Susman, E., & Rogol, A. (2004). Puberty and psychological development. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, New York: Wiley.
^ 44.044.1Tanner, J. (1972). Sequence, tempo, and individual variation in growth and development of boys and girls aged twelve to sixteen. In J. Kagan & R. Coles (Eds.), Twelve to sixteen: Early adolescence, New York: Norton.
^Gilsanz V.; Roe T.; Mora S.; Costin G.; Goodman W. Changes in vertebral bone density in Black girls and White girls during childhood and puberty. New England Journal of Medicine. 1991, 325 (23): 1597–1600. PMID 1944449. doi:10.1056/NEJM199112053252302.
^Peterson, A., & Taylor, B. (1980). The biological approach to adolescence: Biological change and psychological adaptation. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, pp.129. New York: Wiley.
^Hafetz, E. (1976). Parameters of sexual maturity in man. In E. Hafetz (Ed.), Perspectives in human reproduction, Vol. 3: Sexual maturity: Physiological and clinical parameters. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.
^Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^Giedd, Jay, N. Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Adolescent Brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2004, 1021 (1): 77–85. doi:10.1196/annals.1308.009.
^Giedd J. N.; Blumenthal J.; Jeffries N. O.; Castellanos F. X.; Liu H.; Zijdenbos A.; Rapoport J. L. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience. 1999, 2 (10): 861–863. PMID 10491603. doi:10.1038/13158.
^Segalowitz S. J.; Davies P. L. Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy. Brain and Cognition. 2004, 55 (1): 116–133. PMID 15134847. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00283-5.
^Weinberger, D.R., Elvevåg, B., Giedd, J.N. (2005). The Adolescent Brain: A Work in Progress. The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy.
^Shoval, G., Bar-Shira O., Zalsman G., John J. Mann and Chechik G. (2014) Transitions in the transcriptome of the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems in the human brain during adolescence. European Neuropsychopharmacology. Transitions in the transcriptome of the serotonergic and dopaminergic systems in the human brain during adolescence. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014, 24 (7): 1123–32. PMID 24721318. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.02.009.
^Pedersen S. Personality formation in adolescence and its impact upon the psycho-analytical treatment of adults. Int J Psychoanal. 1961, 42: 381–8. PMID 14484851.
^Keating, D. (2004). Cognitive and brain development. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
^Kali R.V.; Ferrer E. Processing speed in childhood and adolescence: Longitudinal models for examining developmental change. Child Development. 2007, 78 (6): 1760–1770. PMID 17988319. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01088.x.
^Brown, A. (1975). The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In H. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10). New York: Academic Press.
^Smetana, J., & Villalobos, M. (2009). Social cognitive development in adolescence. In R. Lerner & L. Steinber (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 187–228. New York: Wiley.
^Selman, R. (1980) The growth of interpersonal understanding: Developmental and clinical analyses. New York: Academic Press.
^Chandler M. The Othello effect: Essay on the emergence and eclipse of skeptical doubt. Human Development. 1987, 30: 137–159. doi:10.1159/000273174.
^Luster Tom; Small Stephen A. Factors Associated with Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors Among Adolescents. Journal of Marriage and Family. 1994, 46: 622–632.
^Kim, Jee Hyun; Richardson, Rick. New findings on extinction of conditioned fear early in development: theoretical and clinical implications. Biological Psychiatry. 2010-02-15, 67 (4): 297–303. ISSN 1873-2402. PMID 19846065. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.09.003.
^ 95.095.1Kroger, J. (1996) The Balance Between Self and Other. (pp. 40-46). New York, U.S.A. Routledge
^ 96.096.1Strasburger, V.C., Wilson B.J., Jordan, A.B. (2014) Children and Adolescents: Unique Audiences. Children, Adolescents, and the Media. (pp. 11-19). U.S.A: SAGE Publications
^Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^Nurmi, J. (2004). Socialization and self-development: Channeling, selection, adjustment, and reflection. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
^ 116.0116.1Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, pp. 159–187. New York: Wiley.
^Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.
^Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence.
^ 125.0125.1Morrow, Deana. Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents. Families in Society. Jan–Mar 2004, 85 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.246.
^Marmot, M. (2003) Self-Esteem and Health: Autonomy, Self-Esteem, and Health are Linked Together". British Medical Journal (327) pp. 574-575
^ 129.0129.1Valkenburg PM, Peter J. Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Integrated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks. Journal of Adolescent Health. February 2011, 48: 121–127. PMID 21257109. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020.
^Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 270. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self-concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self, Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
^Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 273. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^"Psychology: The Science of Behaviour" 3rd Canadian Edition
^Osvelia Deeds, Jeannette Delgado, Miguel Diego, Tiffany Field, and Martha Pelaez (2009). "Adolescence".
^Adler, R.B., Rosenfeld, L.B., Proctor, R.F., & Winder, C. (2012). "Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, Third Canadian Edition" Oxford University Press. pp. 42-45
^Grotevant, H. (1997). Adolescent development in family contexts. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed.), Vol. 3: Social, emotional, and personality development, pp. 1097–1149. New York: Wiley.
^Kim J.; McHale S. M.; Osgood D. W.; Grouter A. C. Longitudinal course and family correlates of sibling relationships from childhood through adolescence. Child Development. 2006, 77 (6): 1746–1761. PMID 17107458. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00971.x.
^Marano, Hara Estroff. Oh, Brother!. Psychology Today. Vol. 43 no. 4 (SIRS Researcher). July 1, 2010: 54–61 [25 October 2010].
^U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, updated and revised from "Families and Work in Transition in 12 Countries,1980–2001," Monthly Labor Review, September 2003
^Vangelisti, A.L., Handbook of family communication, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004
^Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., & Kruk, R. (2004). A Child's World: Infancy through Adolescence (First Canadian Ed.) McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. pp. 444-451
^ 155.0155.1155.2155.3Swanson, D.P.; Edwards, M.C.; Spencer, M.B., Adolescence: Development during a global era, Boston: Elsevier Academic Press, 2010
^Berndt, Thomas J. Friendship Quality and Social Development. Current Directions in Psychological Science. February 2002, 11 (1): 7–10. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00157.
^Brown, B. (1990). Peer groups. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent, pp. 171–196. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
^Brown, B. (2004). Adolescents' relationships with peers. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology. New York: Wiley.
^How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence.
^Carlo G.; Mestre M. V.; McGinley M. M.; Samper P.; Tur A.; Sandman D. The interplay of emotional instability, empathy, and coping on prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences. 2012, 53 (5): 675–680. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.022.
^Grier, Peter. "The Heart of a High School: Peers As Collective Parent." Christian Science Monitor. 24 April 2000: n.p. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 October 2010.
^Brown, B., & Mounts, N. (1989, April). "Peer groups structures in single versus multiethnic high schools". Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego.
^Larkin, R.W. (1979). Suburban youth in cultural crisis. New York: Oxford.
^ 172.0172.1Subrahmanyam, Kaveri; Greenfield, Patricia. Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships. The Future of Children. Spring 2008, 18: 119–146. doi:10.1353/foc.0.0006.
^ 173.0173.1Carver K., Joyner K., Udry J.R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications, 291–329.
^the family planning association of Hong Kong. F3-F7. the report of young sexually 2011. 2013. ISBN 978-962-7435-51-8.
^Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research. New York: Guilford Press.
^Madsen, S.; Collins, W. A. Differential predictions of young adult romantic relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development. Atlanta, Georgia. 2005.
^Seiffge-Krenke, I.; Lang, J. Forming and maintaining romantic relations from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence. New Orleans, Louisiana. 2002.
^Pearce MJ, Boergers J, Prinstein MJ. Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships. Obesity Research. 2002, 10 (5): 386–93. PMID 12006638. doi:10.1038/oby.2002.53.
^Manning W.; Longmore M.; Giordano P. The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse. Family Planning Perspectives. 2000, 32 (3): 104–110. PMID 10894255. doi:10.2307/2648158.
^Welsh D. P.; Haugen P. T.; Widman L.; Darling N.; Grello C. M. Kissing is good: a developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. 2005, 2 (4): 32–41. doi:10.1525/srsp.2005.2.4.32.
^Grello C. M.; Welsh D. P.; Harper MS; Dickson J. Dating and sexual relationship trajectories and adolescent functioning. Adolescent & Family Health. 2003, 3: 103–12.
^Lerner, J.V.; Lerner, R.M.; Finkelstein, J. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 807. ISBN 1576072053.
^ 202.0202.1202.2Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 807. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 271. ISBN 1576072053.
^Melanie Tebbutt, Making Youth: A History of Youth in Modern Britain (2016).
^Selina Todd, and Hilary Young. "Baby-Boomers to ‘Beanstalkers’ Making the Modern Teenager in Post-War Britain." Cultural and Social History 9#3 (2012): 451-467.
^Laura Tisdall, "Inside the ‘blackboard jungle’ male teachers and male pupils at English secondary modern schools in fact and fiction, 1950 to 1959." Cultural and Social History 12.4 (2015): 489-507.
^Helena Mills, "Using the personal to critique the popular: women’s memories of 1960s youth." Contemporary British History 30#4 (2016): 463-483.
^ 208.0208.1208.2208.3208.4208.5Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. foreword by Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 79. ISBN 1576072053.
^Juang, L., Lerner, J. McKinney, J., & von Eye, A. (1999)
^ 210.0210.1Steinberg, L. (2011). "Adolescence," 9th ed. 292. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^ 212.0212.1Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 115. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 116. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 44. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 44–45. ISBN 1576072053.
^Larson, R., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend their time: Time budgest for locations, activities, and companionship. "American Journal of Community Psychology, 29", 565-597.
^ 217.0217.1National Research Council. (2005). "Growing up global". Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 101. ISBN 1576072053.
^ 220.0220.1Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 577. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 577–579. ISBN 1576072053.
^Lerner, Jacqueline V. Rosenberg, Richard M.; Jordan Finkelstein , 编. Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Mark L. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. 2001: 578. ISBN 1576072053.
^[Fields, J. (2012). Sexuality Education in the United States: Shared Cultural Ideas across a Political Divide. Retrieved April 28, 2016.]
^Ford, C. & Beach, F. (1951). "Patterns of sexual behavior". New York: Harper & Row.
^ 225.0225.1225.2Steinberg, L. (2011). "Adolescence", 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^Diamond, L., Savin- Williams, R. (2009). Adolescent Sexuality. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), "Handbook of adolescent psychology" (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 479–523). New York: Wiley.
^Furlong, Andy (2013). "Youth Studies", New York, NY: Routledge.
^Mashamba, Tshilidzi; Mudhovozi, Pilot; Sodi, Tholene. Gender differences in cigarette smoking among college students. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance. September 2012: 117–130.
^Greenblatt, Janet C. (2000). "Patterns of Alcohol Use Among Adolescents and Associations with Emotional and Behavioral Problems."
^ 232.0232.1Duan, L.; Chou, C.; Andreeva, V.; Pentz, M. Trajectories of Peer Social Influences as Long-term Predictors of Drug Use from Early Through Late Adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. July 2009, 38 (3): 454–465. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9310-y.
^Mäkinen, M; et al. Body dissatisfaction and body mass in girls and boys transitioning from early to mid-adolescence: additional role of self-esteem and eating habits. BMC Psychiatry. 2012, 12: 35. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-35. 引文格式1维护:显式使用等标签 (link)
^Hamm, MP; Newton, AS; Chisholm, A; Shulhan, J; Milne, A; Sundar, P; Ennis, H; Scott, SD; Hartling, L. Prevalence and Effect of Cyberbullying on Children and Young People: A Scoping Review of Social Media Studies.. JAMA pediatrics. 22 June 2015, 169: 770–7. PMID 26098362. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.0944.
^The Invention of Adolescence. Psychology Today. June 9, 2016 [February 19, 2017].参数|magazine=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配(建议改用{{cite magazine}}或|website=) (帮助)
^Fasick, Frank A. On the "Invention" of Adolescence.. Journal of Early Adolescence. February 1994, 14 (1): 6–23 [2018-02-27]. doi:10.1177/0272431694014001002. (原始内容存档于2021-05-15). "[...] the application of technology to increase productivity, the affluence generated by it, and the related structural changes in society have contributed to the creation of adolescence in the North American urban-industrial society."
^Demos, John; Demos, Virginia. Adolescence in Historical Perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family. 1969, 31 (4): 632–638 [2018-02-27]. doi:10.2307/349302. (原始内容存档于2021-05-15). "The idea of adolescence is today one of our most widely held and deeply imbedded assumptions about the process of human development. Indeed most of us treat it not as an idea but as a fact. [...] The concept of adolescence, as generally understood and applied, did not exist before the last two decades of the nineteenth century."