Sampradaya (Sanskrit: सम्प्रदाय; IAST: Saṃpradāya), in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'.[1][note 1] To ensure continuity and transmission of dharma, various sampradayas have the Guru-shishya parampara in which parampara or lineage of successive gurus (masters) and shishyas (disciples) serves as a spiritual channel and provides a reliable network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity.[1]Shramana is vedic term for seeker or shishya. Identification with and followership of sampradayas is not static, as sampradayas allows flexibility where one can leave one sampradaya and enter another or practice religious syncretism by simultaneously following more than one sampradaya. Samparda is a Punjabi language term, used in Sikhism, for sampradayas.
Sampradayas are living traditions of both teaching and practice within a specific religious-spiritual tradition. They are generally composed of a monastic order within a specific guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.[2] A particular guru lineage is called parampara. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.
Sampradaya is a body of practice, views and attitudes, which are transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. Participation in sampradaya forces continuity with the past, or tradition, but at the same time provides a platform for change from within the community of practitioners of this particular traditional group.[1]
A particular guru lineage in guru-shishya tradition is called parampara, and may have its own akharas and gurukulas. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.[1] One cannot become a member by birth, as is the case with gotra, a seminal, or hereditary, dynasty.
Authority on knowledge of truth
Membership in a sampradaya not only lends a level of authority to one's claims on truth in Hindu traditional context, but also allows one to make those claims in the first place. An often quoted verse from the Padma Purana states:
Mantras which are not received in sampradaya are considered fruitless.[1][note 2]
And another verse states:
Unless one is initiated by a bona-fide spiritual master in the disciplic succession, the mantra he might have received is without any effect.[1][note 3]
As Wright and Wright put it,
If one cannot prove natal legitimacy, one may be cast out as a bastard. The same social standard applies to religious organizations. If a religious group cannot prove its descent from one of the recognised traditions, it risks being dismissed as illegitimate.[3]
Nevertheless, there are also examples of teachers who were not initiated into a sampradaya, Ramana Maharshi being a well-known example.[4][web 1] A sannyasin belonging to the Sringeri Sharada Peetham once tried to persuade Ramana to be initiated into sannyasa, but Ramana refused.[4]
Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into āstika and nāstika schools of thought.[5]
Āstika and nāstika concept in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scriptures define Astika as those sampradayas which believe in the existence of Atman (Self) and those who accept supremacy of vedas, Nastika being those who deny there is any "Self" in human beings or do not hold vedas as supreme. In modern context, Astika are also defined as theists and Nastika as atheist. In Indian origin religions, even atheism is considered acceptable, especially under the concept of Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava. The concept of acceptable or valid Dharma excludes the Mleccha (impure) who are considered without the purity of ethics and code of conduct called yamas and niyama.
Sampradayas of Indian-origin religions have their own Darshana or philosophy,[6] encompassing world views and teachings.[7] Six Astika or orthodox sampradayas which believe in supremacy of veda are called shad-darśana (lit. six system), namely Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[8]
Āstika or orthodox sampradayas
Astika or orthodox sampradayas or schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ("six systems"). This scheme was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins.[9]: 2–3 It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.[9]: 4–5 Each of six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each astika darsana also accepts the premise that Atman (soul, eternal self) exists.[10][11] The āstika schools of philosophy are:
Samkhya – An strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter. Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.
Mīmāṃsā – An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy. This school deals with the correct interpretation of the verses in Vedas.
Vedānta – The last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or jñānakāṇḍa (section of knowledge). Vedanta is also referred as Uttara-Mimamsa. Vedānta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period.
Nastika sampradayas
Nastika or hetrodox sampradayas do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four nāstika (heterodox) schools are prominent:[12]
Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.[13][14]
Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.[15][16]
Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (soul, self)[17] and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (soul, self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.[18]
Polycentric or syncretic sampradayas
Some are syncretic in nature which might adopt mixture of concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.
Hinduism is subdivided into a number of major sampradayas. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.[22] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).[23][24][25] These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.[26]
According to the Padma Purāṇa, one of the eighteen main Purāṇas, there are four Vaishnava sampradāyas, which preserve the fruitful mantras:[note 4]
All mantras which have been given (to disciples) not in an authorised Sampradāya are fruitless. Therefore, in Kali Yuga, there will be four bona-fide Sampradāyas.[27]
During the Kali Yuga these sampradāyas appear in the holy place of JaganathaPuri, and purify the entire earth.
Each of them were inaugurated by a deity, who appointed heads to these lineages:
Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy is known as the descendant from the teaching of Sanatkumara, one of the Kumaras.(Sanatkumara→Satyanjana Darshini→Paranjyoti rishi→Meykandar.[32]
Swami Lakshmanjo Academy[37] and other Kashmir Saivite Mathas
Also known as Ragasya Sampradaya and Trayambaka Sampradaya.[38][39] Starts its gurus at Srikantha, Vasugupta, and Somananda. Sometimes Durvasa also included.[39]
Adi Sankara founded four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ) (monasteries) to preserve and develop his philosophies. One each in the north, south, east and west of the Indian subcontinent, each headed by one of his direct disciples.
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors".[40] The mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".[41]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[web 2]
The current heads of the mathas trace their authority back to these figures, and each of the heads of these four mathas takes the title of Shankaracharya ("the learned Shankara") after Adi Sankara.[citation needed]
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.
Dashanami Sampradaya, "Tradition of Ten Names", is a Hindu monastic tradition of ēkadaṇḍi sannyasins (wandering renunciates carrying a single staff)[42][43][44] generally associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition. They are distinct in their practices from the SaivaTridaṇḍi sannyāsins or "trident renunciates", who continue to wear the sacred thread after renunciation, while ēkadaṇḍi sannyāsins do not.[note 5]
The Ekadandi Vedāntins aim for moksha as the existence of the self in its natural condition indicated by the destruction of all its specific qualities.[45] Any Hindu, irrespective of class, caste, age or gender can seek sannyāsa as an Ekadandi monk under the Dasanāmi tradition.
The Ekadandis or Dasanāmis had established monasteries in India and Nepal in ancient times.[web 3] After the decline of Buddhism, a section of the Ekadandis were organized by Adi Shankara in the 8th century in India to be associated with four maṭhas to provide a base for the growth of Hinduism. However, the association of the Dasanāmis with the Sankara maṭhas remained nominal. Professor Kiyokazu Okita and Indologist B. N. K. Sharma says, Sannyasis in the lineage of Advaita of Adi Shankara and the Sannyasis in the lineage of Dvaita of Madhvacharya are all Ēkadaṇḍis.[46]
Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Lord MurugaKarttikeya is the Supreme Godhead. Lord Muruga is considered superior to the Trimurti. The worshippers of Lord Muruga are called Kaumaras.[citation needed]
Hinduism dominated the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.
The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.
Smarta Sampradaya (स्मार्त), developed around the beginning of the Common Era, reflects a Hindu synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa, Advaita, Yoga, and theism.[47] The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism,[47] and it is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Ganesha, and Shakti.[48] The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites.[49][50] There has been considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.[51][52][53] Even though Smarta sampradaya regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer,[54] advaita sampradaya is not a Shaiva sect, despite the historical links with Shaivism: Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Shiva and Vishnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others. Shankara championed that the ultimate reality is impersonal and Nirguna (attributeless) and that any symbolic god serves the same equivalent purpose.[55] Inspired by this belief, the Smarta tradition followers, along with the five Hindu gods include a sixth impersonal god in their practice.[55] The tradition has been described by William Jackson as "advaitin, monistic in its outlook".[56]
Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna). The Nambudiri Brahmins are famous for their preservation of the ancient Somayaagam, Agnicayana rituals which have vanished in other parts of India.[citation needed]
The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.[57][58] The Konark Sun Temple was built in mid 13th century.[59] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink.[60][61] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. [citation needed] Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.
Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Lord Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.[citation needed]
Buda sampradaya or Buddha sampradāya is a classification based on the observance of Dutch ethnographers of Brahmana caste of Balinese Hinduism into two: Siwa (Shiva) and Buda (Buddha). The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to castas in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.[64] This concept of Buddha Sampradāya could be applied to all Buddhist communities.
Akaali Nihangs – Typically viewed as the armed forces of the Sikh Panth.[65] As institutionalised by Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru. Within this order there are the two main ones: Buddha Dal - army of elders, and Tarna Dal - army of youth.[66] Connected to these two are several smaller sub-orders.[66] Buddha Dal holds authority in all matters concerning the Akaali Nihang order - the president of Buddha Dal was previously always also the president of the Akaal Takht,[66] the highest temporal authority of the Sikh Panth.[67] Technically the sect belongs to the Sahibzada (son) of the 10th Guru, Baba Fateh Singh.
Nirmalas – Indic scholars within the Sikh Panth. Traditionally studying a vast array of Indic and some non-Indic literature,[65] as well as producing texts. They also engage in dialogue and discourse with other Dharmik paths.[65] Claim institutionalization by the 10th Guru also.[66] There are two main Nirmala branches: Bhai Daya Singh Ji Samparda & Bhai Dharam Singh Ji Samparda - who were two of the Panj Pyare or beloved ones of the 10th Guru. With these two orders there are further sub-orders. Still exist today.[68]
Udasi – An ascetic order who were traditionally caretakers of Gurdwaras and involved in missionary work.[66] Certain practises of theirs diverge from mainstream Sikh belief although they do not promote this to others.[69] The order was started by Baba Sri Chand, the eldest Sahibzada (son) of the 1st Guru, Guru Nanak.[66] Baba Sri Chand is their Gurdev/Ustadh. Still exist today.
Sevapanthis – Philanthropists, involved in helping others or doing seva[70] - free service without expectation of reward. They are also engaged in scholarly work. The order was first headed by Bhai Kahnaiya, a Sikh of the 10th Guru - who famously helped wounded enemy soldiers during war time by providing medical care.[71] Hardly exist today.[72]
Gyaaniyan Samparda – the university of Sikhi, whilst technically not an order, it essentially serves as one.[73] Made up from individuals belonging to all of the above sects. Many branches within this order.[73]
The Damdami Taksal claims direct lineage from the Giani Samparda,[73] although this is a topic of contention.[74]
^The original Sanskrit text found in Sabda-Kalpa-Druma Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary and Prameya-ratnavali 1.5-6 by Baladeva Vidyabhushana states:
sampradaya vihina ye mantras te nisphala matah atah kalau bhavisyanti catvarah sampradayinah sri-brahma-rudra-sanaka vaisnavah ksiti-pavanah catvaras te kalau bhavya hy utkale purusottamat ramanujam sri svicakre madhvacaryam caturmukhah sri visnusvaminam rudro nimbadityam catuhsanah
^Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, ISBN978-0231149877, pages 2–5
^John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120801585, pages 60–62
^P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN978-1135703226, page 88
^James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN978-0823931798, page 22
^AL Basham (2009), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120812048, Chapter 1
^R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, ISBN978-0857284334, pages 53, 94, 141–142
^Johannes Bronkhorst (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19–30
^Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism" KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN978-8120806191, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards; Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now (2013, Subscription Required);
^Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
^Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
^MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
^P. N. K. Bamzai (1994) "Culture and Political History of Kashmir"
^ abV. N. Drabu (1990) "Śaivāgamas: A Study in the Socio-economic Ideas and Institutions of Kashmir (200 B.C. to A.D. 700) Indus Publishing ISBN9788185182384
^Sanderson, Alexis. "The Saiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Saivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 276–277.
^John Shephard (2009), Ninian Smart on World Religions, Ashgate, ISBN978-0754666387, page 186
^U. Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195610796, page 150
^ abL. Williamson (2010), Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion, New York University Press, ISBN978-0814794500, page 89
^William Jackson (1994), Tyāgarāja and the Renewal of Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120811461, page 218
^James Boon (1977). The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597–1972: Dynamic Perspectives in Marriage and Caste, Politics and Religion. ISBN0-521-21398-3.
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