Developmental coordination ail
Synonyms	Developmental motor coordination ail, dyspraxia
Mony fowk wi dyspraxia hae difficulty wi tyin shaelaces, writin, an performin tasks that require coordination.
Specialty	Psychiatry, neurology
Symptoms	Motor skeels deficit an informational processin difficulties
Complications	Learnin difficulties, low sel-esteem, wee tae nae engagement in pheesical activities lik sports, leadin tae obesity
Uisual onset	syne birth
Duration	Lifelang
Seemilar condeetions	Motor impairments owin tae anither medical condeetion, autism, attention deficit hyperactivity ail, dysgraphia, jynt hypermobility syndrome, hypotonia, fetal alcohol spectrum ail
Treatment	Pheesical therapy, occupational therapy
Frequency	5–6% (o aw age groups)
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Developmental coordination ail (DCA), forby kent as developmental motor coordination ail, developmental dyspraxia, or simply dyspraxia (frae Auncient Greek praxis 'activity'), is a motor ail chairacterised bi impairt coordination o pheesical muivements as a result o harn messages nae bein accurately transmittit tae the bouk. Deficits in fine or gross motor skeels muivements interfere wi activities o daily livin. It is aften descrieved as ail in skeel acquisition, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Difficulties mey present as clumsiness, slawness an inaccuracy o performance o motor skeels (e.g., catchin objecks, uisin cutlery, haundwritin, ridin a bike, uise o tuils or pairteecipatin in team sports or soummin). It is aften accompanee'd bi difficulty wi organisation an/or problems wi attention, wirkin memory an time management.

A diagnosis o DCD is reached anly in the absence o ither neurological impairments sic as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's dishailth. The condeetion is lifelang an its onset is in early bairnheid. It is thoucht tae affeck aboot 5% o the population. Occupational therapy can help fowk wi dyspraxia tae develop thair coordination an achieve things that thay micht itherwise find extremely challengin tae accomplish. Dyspraxia haes naething tae dae wi intelligence but fowk wi dyspraxia mey struggle wi sel-esteem acause thair peers can easily dae things thay struggle wi on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is nae aften kent as a disabeelity in the general public.

The Warld Heal Organisation (WHO) recognises DCA as a condeetion an hae published thair defineetion in the Internaitional Clessification o Dishailths.

The American Psychiatric Association (APA)'s Diagnostic an Stateestical Manual, DSM-5 clessifies Developmental Coordination Ail (DCA) as a discrete motor ail unner the broader heidin o neurodevelopmental ails. It is aften descrieved as a ail in skeel acquisition or motor learnin, whaur the learnin an execution o coordinatit motor skeels is substantially belaw that expectit gien the individual's chronological age. Mony areas o development can be affeckit bi DCA an thir mey persist intae adultheid.

In bairn, DCA mey exhibit as delays in early development o sittin, crawlin, walkin; peer abeelity or difficulties wi bairnheid activities sic as rinnin, jumpin, happin, catchin, sports an soummin; slawness; frequent trippin an bruisin; peer haundwritin skeels; difficulties wi sel care; difficulties wi skeels sic as uisin cutlery or tyin shaelaces; peer spatial unnerstaundin; difficulty follaein instructions; peer time management; an aften losin objecks.

In adultheid, in addeetion tae a bairnheid history as abuin, the condeetion mey manifest as a difficulty learnin new motor skeels or applyin skeels in a different or busy environment, peer organisation an time management skeels, missed deidlines an lateness fur appyntments (or earliness as a copin strategy), an awkward pauses afore answerin in conversation. Thare is aften a history o unnerachievement in eddication or the wirkplace. Awthou skeels can be acquired, sic as neat haundwritin, haundwritin speed will then be muckle lower nor expectit.

Evidence frae resairch an clinical practice indicates that DCA is nae juist a pheesical ail, an thare mey be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation an emotional regulation that extend furth the motor impairments an that are independent o diagnoses o co-morbidities. In addeetion tae the pheesical or motor impairments, developmental coordination ail is associatit wi problems wi memory, inspecially wirkin memory. This teepically results in difficulty myndin instructions, difficulty organisin ane's time an myndin deidlines, increased propensity tae lose things or problems carryin oot tasks that require myndin seevral steps in sequence (sic as cuikin). Whilst maist o the general population experience thir problems tae some extent, thay hae a muckle mair signeeficant impact on the lives o dyspraxic fowk. Houiver, mony dyspraxics hae excellent lang-term memories, in maugre o peer short-term memory. Mony dyspraxic fowk benefit frae wirkin in a structured environment, as repeatin the same routine minimises difficulty wi time-management an allous thaim tae commit procedurs tae lang-term memory.

Fowk wi developmental coordination ail whiles hae difficulty moderatin the amoont o sensory information that thair bouk is constantly sendin thaim, sae as a result thir dyspraxic fowk mey be prone tae sensory owerload an panic attacks.

Moderate tae extreme difficulty daein pheesical tasks is experienced bi some fowk wi dyspraxia, an fatigue is common acause sae muckle energy is expendit tryin tae execute pheesical muivements correctly. Some dyspraxic fowk hae hypotonia, low muscle tone, that can detrimentally affeck balance an aa.

Hale bouk muivement an motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets includin walkin, rinnin, climbin an jumpin can be affeckit. The difficulties vary frae person tae person an can include the follaein:

• Peer timin.
• Peer balance (whiles even fawin ower in mid-step). Trippin ower ane's awn feet is common an aa.
• Difficulty combinin muivements intae a controlled sequence.
• Difficulty myndin the nixt muivement in a sequence.
• Problems wi spatial awareness, or proprioception.
• Trouble pickin up an hauldin ontae simple objecks sic as pincils, owin tae peer muscle tone or proprioception.
• Clumsiness tae the pynt o knockin things ower, causin minor injuries tae anesel an bumpin intae fowk accidentally.
• Difficulty in determinin left frae richt.
• Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, an a shift in the preferred haund are common in fowk wi developmental coordination ail an aa.
• Problems wi chewin fuids.

Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty wi a wide variety o ither tasks sic as uisin a knife an fork, fastenin buttons an shaelaces, cuikin, brushin tuith, stylin hair, shavin, applyin cosmetics, appenin jars an packets, lackin an unlackin duirs, an daein hoosewirk.

Difficulties wi fine motor co-ordination lead tae problems wi haundwritin, Problems associatit wi this area mey include:

• Learnin basic muivement patterns.
• Developin a desired writin speed.
• Establishin the correct pincil grip.
• Haundwritin that is difficult tae read an mey miss wirds in sentences or place wirds in the incorrect order
• Acquirin graphemes, e.g. the letters o the Laitin alphabet, as weel as nummers.

Developmental verbal dyspraxia (DVD) is a teep o ideational dyspraxia, causin speech an leid impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; houiver, it is whiles referred tae as airticulatory dyspraxia an aa, an in the Unitit States the uisual term is bairnheid apraxia o speech (BAS).

Key problems include:

• Difficulties controllin the speech organs.
• Difficulties makin speech soonds.
• Difficulty sequencin soonds athin a wird.
• Difficulty sequencin soonds formin wirds intae sentences.
• Difficulty controllin breithin, suppressin salivation an phonation whan taukin or singin wi leerics.
• Slaw leid development.

DCA is kent tae co-occur wi ither neurodevelopmental ails. Maist common is attention deficit hyperactivity ail (ADHA), wi an estimatit 50% o fowk wi ADHA haein DCA an aa, an vice versa. Ither co-occurrin condeetions are autism, developmental leid ail, prosopagnosia an developmental learnin ail.

Fowk wha hae developmental coordination ail mey hae ane or mair o thir ither co-morbid condeetions:

• Fetal alcohol spectrum ail
• Dyscalculia (difficulty wi nummers)
• Dysgraphia (an inabeelity tae write neatly or draw)
• Dyslexia (difficulty wi readin an spellin)
• Hypermobility
• Hypotonia (low muscle tone)
• Nonverbal learnin ail
• Sensory processin ail
• Veesual perception deficits

Houiver, a person wi DCA is unlikely tae hae aw o thir condeetions. The pattern o difficulty varies widely frae person tae person; an area o major weakness fur ane dyspraxic person can be an area o strenth or gift fur anither. Fur ensaumple, whiles some dyspraxic fowk hae difficulty wi readin an spellin owin tae dyslexia, or wi numeracy owin tae dyscalculia, ithers mey hae brilliant readin an spellin or mathematical abeelities. Co-morbidity atween ADHA an DCA is pairticulairly heich.

Sensory processin ail (SPA) concerns haein owersensitivity or unnersensitivity tae pheesical stimuli, sic as touch, licht, soond, an smell. This mey manifest itsel as an inabeelity tae tolerate certain texturs sic as saundpaper or certain fabrics sic as wool, oral intolerance o excessively textured fuid (commonly kent as picky eatin), bein touched bi anither individual (in the case o touch owersensitivity) or it mey require the consistent uise o sunglesses ootduirs syne sunlicht mey be intense eneuch tae cause discomfort tae a dyspraxic person (in the case o licht owersensitivity). An aversion tae lood muisic an naiturally lood environments (sic as clubs an bars) is teepical behaviour o individuals wi dyspraxia wha hae auditory owersensitivity, whiles anly bein comfortable in unuisually wairm or cauld environments is teepical o a dyspraxic person wi temperatur owersensitivity. Unnersensitivity tae stimuli mey cause problems an aa, as individuals dae nae receive the sensory inpit thay need tae unnerstaund whaur thair bouks are in space. This can mak it even mair challengin tae complete tasks. Dyspraxic fowk wha are unnersensitive tae pain mey injur thaimsels wioot realisin it. Some dyspraxic fowk mey be owersensitive tae some stimuli an unnersensitive tae ithers.

Developmental leid ail (DLA) resairch haes foond that students wi developmental coordination ail an normal leid skeels aye experience learnin difficulties maugre o relative strenths in leid. This means that, fur students wi developmental coordination ail, thair wirkin memory abeelities determine thair learnin difficulties. Ony strenth in leid that thay hae is nae able tae sufficiently support thair learnin.

Students wi developmental coordination ail struggle maist in veesual-spatial memory. Whan compared tae thair peers wioot motor difficulties, students wi developmental coordination ail are seiven times mair likely nor teepically developin students tae achieve vera peer scores in veesual-spatial memory. As a result o this wirkin memory impairment, students wi developmental coordination ail hae learnin deficits as weel.

Pheesical consequences

Dyspraxic individuals face a heicher prevalence o negative ootcomes, includin peer cardiovascular heal, challenges wi pheesical heal an sel-care.

Psychological domain: Bairn wi DCA mey struggle wi lower sel-efficacy an lower sel-perceived competence in peer an social relations. Some demonstrate muckler aggressiveness an hyperactivity.

Social domain: Bairn mey be mair vulnerable tae social rejection an bullyin, possibly resultin in heicher levels o laneliness.

Support domain: In the Unitit Kinrick, dyspraxic adults are less likely tae be awairdit disabeelity support fur heicher eddication nor thair dyslexic peers or thaim wi co-occurrin neurodivergence. Consequently, misinterpretations an inadequate support in thir settins are mair likely tae occur an are less likely tae be includit an supportit.

• Helen Burns, a chairacter frae Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre, is allegit tae hae been based on the author's dyspraxic elder sister Maria Brontë.
• Ryan Sinclair, a chairacter in the BBC science feection telly programme Doctor Who.

Fowk wha hae publicly statit thay hae been diagnosed wi developmental coordination ail include:

• David Bailey, photographer
• John "TotalBiscuit" Bain, gemmes creetic
• Cara Delevingne, model
• Ellis Genge, Rugby Union pleyer
• Gage Golightly, actress
• Olive Gray, actor
• Tom Hunt, poleetician
• Harriet Kemsley, comedian
• Emma Lewell-Buck, poleetician
• Mel B, sangster
• Will Poulter, actor
• Daniel Radcliffe, actor
• Holly Smale, author
• Florence Welch, sangster
• Toyah Willcox, muisicker

• Polatajko H, Fox M, Missiuna C (1995). "An International Consensus on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder". Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 62 (1): 3–6. doi:10.1177/000841749506200101.
• Mandich A, Polatajko HJ (November 2003). "Developmental coordination disorder: mechanisms, measurement and management". Human Movement Science. 22 (4–5): 407–11. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.001. PMID 14624825.
• Talukdar, A (2012). Dyspraxia/DCD pocketbook (PDF). Teachers' Pocketbooks. Hampshire; UK: Management Pocketbooks. ISBN 978-1-906610-38-8. OCLC 1162296987.
• "6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder". Clinical descriptions and diagnostic requirements for ICD-11 mental, behavioural and neurodevelopmental disorders. World Health Organization. 2024. pp. 139–142. hdl:10665/375767. ISBN 978-92-4-007726-3.
• Sutton Hamilton, S. "Developmental coordination disorder: Management and outcome". UpToDate.