启蒙运动结束时,欧洲许多学者超越了文本分析和“福音和谐”的方法,开始探索耶稣传记,通常称为“耶稣的人生”(Lives of Jesus)。这些传记试图将一些历史技术应用于被和谐化的福音书中,并产生对耶稣生活的新概观。这些构建耶稣传记的尝试被称为第一次“探索历史中的耶稣”,这个表达源于阿尔伯特·史怀哲的书名,原来的题目是《探索历史中的耶稣:批判性性地研究从Reimarus到Wrede的探索进程》。
Andreas J. Köstenberger说,在许多情况下,这些故事描绘的耶稣“像探索者本人”,而不是公元1世纪的犹太人。[10]
在第一次探索期间,各种版本的“耶稣的生活”的作者使用不同的基本主题。在某些情况下,它旨在赞美基督教,而在别的情况中,则在反基督教。这个领域最早的著名作者是赫尔曼·雷马鲁斯(Hermann Reimarus,1694-1768年),他描述耶稣是一个不成功的政治人物,认为自己的召命是将上帝作为以色列王。Reimarus写了一部论著,文中拒绝了神迹,指责圣经作者的欺诈行为,但他没有出版这本书[11]。后来,Gotthold Lessing(1729-1781)在Reimarus死后发表了他的论著[12]。Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) 并没有兴趣还原一个历史中的耶稣,他的兴趣是批评宗教。因此他写了《试观此人!——拿撒勒人耶稣的历史》(Ecce Homo - The History of Jesus of Nazareth),并于1769年在阿姆斯特丹匿名发表[13][14]。这本书由乔治·休斯顿(George Houston)翻译成英文,于1799年和1813年出版,为此休斯顿(他承认自己是作者)犯下亵渎罪,被监禁了两年[15]。
勒南的《耶稣传》是19世纪畅销书之一。
大卫·施特劳斯在27岁时拒绝所有超自然事件,将它们看作神话阐释,从而开创了对“历史中的耶稣”的搜寻。他写于1835年的《耶稣的生活》[16]是第一部系统地分析耶稣生活故事最具影响力的作品,他试图以不带偏见的历史研究方法进行分析。施特劳斯从神话的角度看待耶稣生活中的神迹记录,这些神话记录是由于基督徒群体在重讲故事时想象出来的,从而将自然事件描述为神迹[17]。阿尔伯特·史怀哲的《探索历史中的耶稣》(1906;1910)中认为,大卫·施特劳斯的论据“长篇大论地解释了那些陈旧的观点,它乍看起来是充满生气,但实际并非如此。”他补充说,在探索历史中的耶稣时有两个大致的学术研究阶段,即“大卫·施特劳斯之前的时期和大卫·施特劳斯之后的时期”。在大卫·施特劳斯之后出现的作品中,欧内斯特·勒南的Vie de Jesus将学术与感性的、小说心理的解释结合在一起,获得巨大成功,在三个月内重印八次。勒南将福音叙述与他的心理解释融为一体,认为耶稣在加利利宣讲了一种“爱的甜美神学”,当这种神学一旦遭遇到耶路撒冷的机制时立刻变得具有革命性。
约翰尼斯·魏斯(Johannes Weiss,1863-1914)和威廉·威尔德( William Wrede ,1859-1906)让学术界注意到耶稣事工中的末世论问题[18]。Weiss和Wrede都是热情的反自由主义者,他们的作品旨在强调耶稣事工和教义的不寻常性质。Wrede讨论了马可福音中的弥赛亚秘密这一主题,并认为这是早期基督徒用来解释耶稣并不声称自己是弥赛亚的一种方法[19]。
阿尔伯特·卡尔特夫(Albert Kalthoff ,1850-1906)在1904年的作品《基督教如何兴起?对基督问题的新贡献》(1907年出版的英文版书目为The rise of Christianity)中名为《耶稣在历史中存在吗?》的一章写道:“神的儿子,世界之主,为童贞女所生,并在死后复活。他和一个富有革命性观念的小木匠儿子是两个完全不同的人。如果其中一个是历史中的耶稣,那么,另一个肯定不是。耶稣历史性的真正问题不仅是在一个有无数声称自己是弥赛亚的犹地亚中是否有一个耶稣,而是:我们是否要承认这个在福音中叫做耶稣的历史人物,以及他是否被视为基督教的创始人。”[20]
阿尔伯特·史怀哲(1875-1965)是个神学历史学家,他在《探索历史中的耶稣:批评性地研究从Reimarus到Wrede的探索进程》(1906年,第一版)中对过往探索耶稣的生命作出了一个重要而具批判性的回顾。他谴责各式作者的主体性将自己的喜好投射到耶稣的角色中。书中用一章(第10章)讨论了Christian Hermann Weisse的“两源假设”和Christian Gottlob Wilke的“Wilke假设”;用三章讨论了大卫·施特劳斯(第7,8和9章),用整整一章(第11章)讨论了布鲁诺·鲍尔。布鲁诺·鲍尔(1809-1882)是第一位肯定耶稣不在历史中存在的学院神学家。然而,他的学术著作被德国学术界埋葬,直到Albert Kalthoff将其从忽视和默默无闻中拯救出来之前,他仍然不为人知。 阿尔伯特·史怀哲高度赞地扬了鲍尔早期的作品,肯定了他关于耶稣的非历史性结论。[21]
对第一次探索的直接挑战是基督神话理论。该理论第一次由亚瑟·德鲁斯(Arthur Drews)发表于1909年,讨论了基督神话理论,并否认了耶稣在历史中存在。德鲁斯扩大和宣传最初由布鲁诺·鲍尔提出的观点[22],他的书本引起了国际级的争议,从而让他具有国际声誉。1912年, S. J. Case 指出,在过去十年裡,关于耶稣存在的怀疑已经占据了很多年,但没有什么地方比德国更明显,在那里,怀疑运动已经成为一种常规宣传,“其中,最重要的冠军是Karlsruhe技术高校的哲学教授亚瑟·德鲁斯。自1909年他的Christusmythe出版以来,在世界各地引起了广泛辩论,特别是在耶拿、马尔堡、吉森、莱比锡和柏林等重要的大学中心,于是这个主题不停地出现在公众面前。”[23][24][25]
为了讨论德鲁斯的观点,阿尔伯特·史怀哲在1913年第二版的《探索历史中的耶稣》(Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung,2. Auflage,1913)中增加了两个新篇章。[26]
第22章(第451-499页)《对耶稣历史性的新否定》(Die Neueste Bestreitung der Geschichtlichkeit Jesu) 分析了德鲁斯的观点,以及八位支持德鲁斯关于耶稣不存在观点的作者:J. M. Robertson, Peter Jensen,[27] Andrzej Niemojewski, Christian Paul Fuhrmann,[28] W.B. Smith, Thomas Whittaker, G.J.P.J. Bolland, Samuel Lublinski。其中三个倾向于对耶稣进行神话-星象解释。
第23章(第500-560页)《关于耶稣历史性的争辩》(Die Diskussion über die Geschichtlichkeit Jesu),审视了40位神学家和学者对德鲁斯书本的回应,并提到1910年2月公众辩论的参与者。大多数出版物对德鲁斯的评价都是批评性和消极的。阿尔伯特·史怀哲继续系统地讨论了Bestreiter(“挑战者”)和Verneiner(“否定者”)——即,荷兰激进派分子J. M. Robertson, W. B. Smith 和德鲁斯——的理论所遇到的问题和困难,也讨论了保罗书信的真实性和保罗的历史性。
Martin Kähler1896年出版的《所谓的历史中的耶稣和历史的、圣经的基督》先于阿尔伯特·史怀哲的著作。Kähler认为,人们不能将历史的耶稣与信仰的基督分开,在任何情况下,圣经分析的主要目标应该是更好地理解影响了历史的“信仰的基督”。Kähler的作品吸引了保守派和自由派,它与史怀哲的作品一起有效地终止了第一次探索。
祈士曼认为,如果系统地应用历史分析的工具,人们就可能了解耶稣的一些东西,这个观点带来极大的影响,激励了一些学者发明研究历史耶稣的新方法。其中一个遵循他的方法的有名作品是Günther Bornkamm1956年的《拿撒勒的耶稣》。他说了一句有名的说话:“福音书关于耶稣的信息、行为和历史的记载的真实性是尤为特出的……这些特征直接将我们带到耶稣在世的形象上。” 这个宣言为20世纪60年代第二次探索提供动力。[41]詹姆斯·罗宾逊(James M. Robinson)1959年的书本《对历史中的耶稣的新探索》重印了许多次,这表明了1960年代人们对这个主题的高度兴趣。[42]
拒绝和处决标准是1985年制定的。它与其他标准完全不同,并且不直接指出耶稣的个别说法或行为是真实的,而是将注意力集中在这样的事实上:耶稣被犹太人拒绝,并被罗马人处决,那么,究竟什么样的言语和行为可以符合这种状况。John P. Meier说,这个标准让人们注意到,如果耶稣没有挑战当时的权威,那么他就不可能被钉死在十字架,因此,这有助于评估耶稣在这种背景中的话语和行动。
连贯性(congruence)标准(也称为累积详尽证据标准)是旧的一致性(coherence)标准的特殊情况。[53]一致性标准,也称为一致符合性(consistency and conformity)标准,审视已经被确定为历史性的事物,并测试一个新的假设是否与已知事物一致和相符。因此,这个标准不仅适用于作为个体的古代文本,而是可以回顾现代分析的结果,并考虑其连贯性和一致性。如果从其他数据中得出的观察结果表明了类似的结论,根据连贯性(congruence)标准,这个假设是真的。
第三次探索的主导阐释的各种差异可以根据它们对耶稣形象的主要阐释分类,这就是,耶稣被描述为:启示的先知,有领导魄力的治疗师,愤世嫉俗的哲学家,犹太的弥赛亚和社会变革的先知。[62][63]但是,每个形象上都存在学术上的分歧,对于构建这些形象的学术方法也存在着分歧。[64][65]然而,在形象之间有重叠的属性,学者不认同某些属性时可能对其他属性有所认同。[66]这些分组反映了每个形象的基本特征,并且这些形象的阐释通常包含着重叠的元素,例如有许多学者,包括克罗森和Wright,虽然彼此批评对方,可他们的阐释都同意耶稣并不“首先是末世论”的支持者,尽管他们相信耶稣传讲了这样的信息。而其他学者(例如,Borg and Mack)在这个问题上有不同的看法。第三次探索因此见证了学术解释之间的分裂,因而不能得出一个统一的耶稣形象。
Das Messianitatsbewusstsein Jesu und seine neueste Bestreitung. Vortrag. (The Messianic Consciousness of Jesus and the most recent denial of it. A Lecture.) 1902. 26 pp. (Against Wrede.)
War Jesus Ekstatiker? (Was Jesus an ecstatic?) Tubingen, 1903. 139 pp.
Paul Wilhelm Schmidt.
Die Geschichte Jesu. (The History of Jesus.) Freiburg, 1899. 175 pp. (4th impression.)
Die Geschichte Jesu. Eriautert. Mit drei Karten von Prot. K. Furrer (Zurich). (The History of Jesus. Preliminary Discussions. With three maps by Prof. K. Furrer of Zurich.) Tubingen, 1904. 414 pp.
Otto Schmiedel.
Die Hauptprobleme der Leben-Jesu-Forschung. (The main Problems in the Study of the Life of Jesus.) Tubingen, 1902. 71 pp. 2nd ed., 1906.
Hermann Freiherr von Soden.
Die wichtigsten Fragen im Leben Jesu. (The most important Questions about the Life df Jesus.) Vacation Lectures. Berlin, 1904. 111 pp.
Hilligenlei. Berlin, 1905. pp. 462-593: "Die Handschrift." ("The Manuscript"-in which a Life of Jesus, written by one of the characters of the story, is given in full.)
Otto Pfleiderer.
Das Urchristentum, seine Schriften und Lehren in geschichtlichem Zusammenhang beschrieben. (Primitive Christianity. Its Documents and Doc- trines in their Historical Context.) 2nd ed. Berlin, 1902. Vol. i., 696 pp.
Die Entstehung des Urchristentums. (How Primitive Christianity arose.) Munich, 1905. 255 pp.
Albert Kalthoff.
Das Christus-Problem. Grundlinien zu einer Sozialtheologie. (The Christ-problem. The Ground-plan of a Social Theology.) Leipzig, 1902.
Die Entstehung des Christentums. Neue Beiträge zum Christus-problem. (How Christianity arose. New contributions to the Christ-problem.) Leipzig, 1904. 155 pp.
Eduard von Hartmann.
Das Christentum des Neuen Testaments. (The Christianity of the New Testament.) 2nd revised edition of "Letters on the Christian Religion." Sachsa-in-the-Harz, 1905. 311 pp.
Morris De Jonge.
Jeschua. Der klassische judische Mann. Zerstorung des kirchlichen, Enthullung des judischen Jesus-Bildes. Berlin, 1904. 112 pp. (Jeshua. The Classical Jewish Man. In which the Jewish picture of Jesus is unveiled, and the ecclesiastical picture destroyed.)
Wolfgang Kirchbach.
Was lehrte Jesus? Zwei Urevangelien. (What was the teaching of Jesus? Two Primitive Gospels.) Berlin, 1897. 248 pp. 2nd revised and greatly enlarged edition, 1902, 339 pp.
Albert Dulk.
Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu. In geschichtlicher Auifassung dar- gestellt. (The Error of the Life of Jesus. An Historical View.) 1st part, 1884, 395 pp.; 2nd part, 1885, 302 pp.
Paul de Regla.
Jesus von Nazareth. German by A. Just. Leipzig, 1894. 435 pp.
Ernest Bosc.
La Vie esoterique de Jesus de Nazareth et les origines orientales da christianisme. (The secret Life of Jesus of Nazareth, and the Oriental Origins of Christianity.) Paris, 1902.[70]
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^The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth. by Ben Witherington III, InterVersity Press, 1997 (second expanded edition), ISBN 0830815449 pp. 9–13
^The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, Westminster John Knox Press 2002) ISBN 0664225373 pp. 1–6
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^Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research by Stanley E. Porter, Bloomsbury 2004 ISBN 0567043606 pp. 28–29
^Amy-Jill Levine in the The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al., Princeton University Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 p. 1: "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars"
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^Weaver, Walter P. The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century: 1900-1950. A&C Black. 1 July 1999: 69 [2017-03-06]. ISBN 978-1-56338-280-2. (原始内容存档于2019-08-03). Case [Shirley Jackson Case] then provided some of the history of the problem, noting the contributions of the French in Charles Dupuis and Constantin Volney (end of eighteenth century), Karl Bahrdt and Karl Venturini in Germany, Charles Hennell in England, as well as the influence of D. F. Strauss and Bruno Bauer. He then listed the main opponents in Germany (Arthur Drews, Albert Kalthoff, Peter Jensen, Samuel Lublinski), in England (J. M. Robertson, G. R. S. Mead, Thomas Whittaker), in Holland (Gerardus J. P. J. Bolland), in France (Charles Virolleaud), Italy (Emilio Bossi), Poland (Andrzej Niemojewski), and America (W. B. Smith).
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^Petr Pokorny "Jesus Research as Feedback" Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus by Tom Holmen and Stanley E. Porter, Brill 2010 ISBN 9004163727 pp. 338–339
^"Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective" by James H. Charlesworth in Jesus and archaeology edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 ISBN 0-8028-4880-X pp. 11–15
^Soundings in the Religion of Jesus: Perspectives and Methods in Jewish and Christian Scholarship by Bruce Chilton Anthony Le Donne and Jacob Neusner 2012 ISBN 0800698010 page 132
^The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington, IVP Academic 1997 ISBN 0830815449 p. 77
^In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (who is a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, Forged : writing in the name of God, Harper 2011 ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. p. 285
^Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary." in Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels by Michael Grant 2004 ISBN 1898799881 page 200
^The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, Westminster John Knox Press 2002 ISBN 0664225373 page 5
^Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al.
^The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pp. 124–125
^The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1 by Margaret M. Mitchell and Frances M. Young, Cambridge University Press 2006 ISBN 0521812399 page 23
^Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus) by James H. Charlesworth and Petr Pokorny, Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 0802863531 pages 1-2
^Images of Christ: Ancient and Modern, by Stanley E. Porter, Michael A. Hayes and David Tombs, Sheffield Academic Press 1997 ISBN 0567044602 page 74
^Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond, Eerdmans 2004) ISBN 0802826806 pp. 16–22
^Jesus the Christ by Walter Kasper, Paulist Press 1976 ISBN p. 31
^Theological Hermeneutics and 1 Thessalonians, by Angus Paddison, Cambridge University Press 2005) ISBN 0521849837 p. 43