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西藏社会阶层

西藏(主要指噶厦统治的西藏,广义上为藏区)在1959年之前有三个主要的社会羣體,即普通的平民(藏语:mi ser贵族sger pa)和僧侣[1]普通平民的可以进一步划分为农民(shing-pa[來源請求]或游牧的牧民(trokpa[來源請求]。 

藏巴王朝(1565-1642年)和甘丹颇章时期(1642-1950年)的西藏法典,区分有三个社会阶层:高、中、低。每一阶层又进一步分为三级,故总共有九阶。这是一种对社会地位的正式分类,以世袭为主,并与法律后果相关:例如,杀害各阶层成员所需支付的赔偿金不等,最低阶是5(sung),而次高阶(即贵族家庭成员)是200松(sung)。

贵族、政府官员和行为清净的僧侣属于高阶层,可能只有达赖喇嘛处于最高阶。中阶层包含很大一部分人口,政府的小官员、纳税人和自耕農以及佃農都可以是这一阶层的一员。中阶层内部有社会流动性[2]下阶层则包含不同类型的ragyabpa(「不洁的人」,英語:Untouchables),例如铁匠屠夫。最低阶包含刽子手,以及(在藏巴汗法条中)单身汉和间性者(即雌雄同体者)。[3]

就中阶层的构成,人类学家提出了不同的划分。部分原因是他们研究了西藏的特定地区,而阶层划分并非统一。[4][5][6][7]不过,梅爾文·戈爾茨坦(Melvyn Goldstein)和杰夫·柴尔兹(Geoff Childs)都将此阶层的人口分为三种主要类型:[8][9]

在中阶层中,纳税人家庭可能相当富有。[11]在不同的地区,每个子階層的民衆在税收和徭役方面的義務不同。[12]这些身份等級主要是世袭的;屬民与他们的土地和地主之间的鏈接都是通过平行世襲(英語:parallel descent)传递。纳税人阶层虽然在三个子阶层中人数最少,但在政治和经济地位方面處在超然地位。

农奴制(英語:serfdom)是否曾在西藏传统社会盛行是一个有争议的问题;海蒂·菲尔德書面挪威語Heidi Fjeld主张一種温的觀點,她承认藏區存在农奴制,但這種情形并不普遍;她認爲,对西藏传统社会阶级制度的更好描述是种姓制度,而非類同欧洲的封建制度

高阶层

高阶层中的最高阶被认为是空置的,或者仅达赖喇嘛可能位于此阶[3]

所有土地产权及地契的根源是达赖喇嘛和政府。

贵族

高阶层的中间阶是实际可达到的最高阶,由世袭贵族领导。Yabshi 被认为是达赖喇嘛的后裔, depon 是古代皇室的后裔,midak 处于略低阶。 [13]

学者认为,存在“大约 30 个较高地位的家族”和“120 到 170 个较低或‘普通’的贵族家族”。 [14]

高级政府官员和僧侣官员

高级政府官员是从贵族中任命的。僧侣官员通常来自拉萨的中间阶层、现有僧官的家庭,或者是贵族的次子。他们通常只是名义上的僧侣,在寺院中度过一晚就足以令其取得僧侣资格。 [15]

中阶层

纳税人家庭

被稱爲treba的納稅人(亦作tralpakhral-pa)是“集团式家族单位”(英語:corporate family units)的一員。这些家族世袭地拥有从地区当权者(政府、寺院或贵族)處租用的土地,并持有土地所有权。在Goldstein对江孜地区(Gyantse)的研究中,他发现一个纳税人家庭通常拥有20英畝(81,000平方米)至300英畝(1,200,000平方米)土地。他们的主要義務是纳税tre-bakhral-pa 的字面意思就是“纳税人”),并向地区当权者提供包括人力和畜力在内的徭役服务[9]他们过着舒适的生活。为了確保每一代人只有一個婚姻關係以避免分割土地,他们还经常在婚姻中采取一妻多夫制和其他做法。

自耕農

自耕農(du-jungdud-chung-ba[9]duiqoinduiqion、düchung、dudchhung、duigoindujung)是仅拥有小块土地的农民。这些土地在法律字面意義上是“个人”财产。这与作为家族集团持有土地的纳税人家族不同。自耕農的土地继承规则与纳税人家族有很大不同,因为一块土地是否会由其子继承是不确定的。地区当权者——无论是政府、寺廟还是贵族——是最终的土地所有者,并能决定继承权,雖然通常这种继承十分稳定。不过,相较于纳税人家族,自耕農有更轻的税收义务,只需服人力徭役。与纳税人家族的义务不同,这些义务是针对个人的,而不是针对家族整体。

佃農

佃農(mi-bo)没有可继承的土地所有权。他们仍然以平民(mi-ser)的身份对他们“所属”土地负有义务[請求校對翻譯]。与纳税人家族和自耕農相比,他们可以自由地去任何他们想去的地方,可以从事贸易或手工艺。[16]在耕种时,他们可能会从纳税人家族租用土地,并爲这些家族工作作为报酬。与自耕農一样,佃農也以个人身份使用非世襲的资源。

mi-bo身份的相对自由通常是通过向其所属土地每年缴纳一筆费用換取的。如果 mi-bo 较为富裕,费用可能会提高。此外,领主仍然可以要求其服一些特殊的徭役,例如爲特殊事件服務。

土地所有者可以隨意撤销這一自由。mi-bo的后代不会自动继承「mi-bo」的身份,他们继承的是「mi-ser」的身份,并且可以在他们十几岁的时候被契约服务,或者必须自己支付 mi-bo[請求校對翻譯][2]

下阶层

Ragyabpa——不洁的人

ragyabpa(「不洁的人」,英語:Untouchables,有时译作「贱民」)处于最低层,从事“不洁”的工作。例如渔民、屠夫、刽子手、尸体处理者、铁匠、金匠和妓女。ragyabpa 也分为三个部分,例如:金匠是是此阶中的最高级,而刽子手则处于最低级,更为人所轻视。

他们被看作是被污染者,而又有污染性。ragyabpa 的身份地位是世袭的,无法摆脱。[17]

Nangzan——家仆

据中华人民共和国政府的消息,nangzan(譯作“郎生”[來源請求],也稱nangzen、nangzan、nangsen)是世袭家仆,占总人口的5%。[18][19]

奴隶制

美国汉、藏学家譚·戈倫夫(A. Tom Grunfeld)认为西藏確實存在一些奴隶。戈倫夫引用了20世纪初駐春比河谷的英国殖民官员暨藏區学者查尔斯·贝尔爵士的话,貝爾爵士寫到,奴隸是自小被偷走或从無力撫養的父母處买来的稚童,他們被撫養長大,然後被保留或出售。[20]这些稚童大多来自藏區东南部及藏區和阿萨姆邦(Assam)之间的部落聚居地。[21]流亡藏人作家嘉央诺布則指出,戈倫夫忽略了贝尔的補充說明,即有“十幾個或二十幾個這樣的(奴隸)”,及这是“一种非常温和的奴隶制形式”。[22]他認爲,后来访问西藏的西方人,甚至海因里希·哈勒彼得·奥弗施奈特英语Peter Aufschnaiter黎吉生大卫·麦克唐纳法语David Macdonald等长期居藏的外国人的叙述中都没有提到任何此類情形,这表明十三世达赖喇嘛在其改革中已經消除这种行为。[22]

引用及脚注

  1. ^ Snellgrove & Richardson(1968年),第257–259页
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Goldstein 1986
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 French(2002年),第114页
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Goldstein(1971年5月),第524页
  5. ^ Samuel, Geoffrey (Feb., 1982) Tibet as a Stateless Society and Some Islamic Parallels The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 215–229
  6. ^ Goldstein(1971年),第64–65页
  7. ^ Childs(2003年),第441–442页
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Goldstein(1971年),第65–66页
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Childs(2003年),第427–428页
  10. ^ Childs(2003年),第427-428页
  11. ^ Goldstein(1971年),第67页
  12. ^ Laird (2006) p. 319
  13. ^ French(2002年),第113页
  14. ^ Goldstein(1989年),第6页
  15. ^ Goldstein(1989年),第6-9页
  16. ^ Goldstein(1987年)
  17. ^ French(2002年),第111–112页
  18. ^ Learn Chinese. [2023-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2012-02-15). 
  19. ^ Tibet's Material Wealth. [2023-12-10]. (原始内容存档于2022-08-15). 
  20. ^ Grunfeld(1996年),第15页
  21. ^ Charles Bell, Tibet Past and Present, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1992, 376 pages, pp. xviii and 78–79: "Slavery was not unknown in the Chumbi Valley during our occupation, but proximity to British India had greatly lessened the numbers of the slaves, so that only a dozen or two remained. Across the frontier in Bhutan there were a great many. / Slaves were sometimes stolen, when small children, from their parents. Or the father and mother being too poor to support their child, would sell it to a man, who paid them sho-ring, 'price of mother's milk', brought up the child and kept it, or sold it, as a slave. These children come mostly from south-eastern Tibet and the territories of the wild tribes who dwell between Tibet and Assam. / Two slaves whom I saw both appeared to have come from this tribal territory. They had been stolen from their parents when five years old, and sold in Lhasa for about seven pounds each. [...] / Slaves received food and clothing from their masters on the same scale as servants, but no pay. [...] / The slavery in the Chumpi valley was of a very mild type. If a slave was not well treated, it was easy for him to escape into Sikkim and British India."
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Acme of Obscenity. [2015-05-25]. (原始内容存档于2015-05-25). 

参考文献

  • Childs, Geoff, "Polyandry and population growth in a Historical Tibetan Society", History of the Family, 2003, 8 (3): 423–444, doi:10.1016/S1081-602X(03)00045-9 
  • French, Rebecca, The Golden Yoke, 2002, ISBN 1-55939-171-5 
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C., Stratification, Polyandry, and Family Structure in Central Tibet, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 1971, 27 (1): 64–74 [2023-12-10], (原始内容存档于2022-01-25) 
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C., Serfdom and Mobility: An Examination of the Institution of "Human Lease" in Traditional Tibetan Society (PDF), The Journal of Asian Studies, May 1971, 30 (3): 521–534 [2023-12-10], (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2023-12-10) 
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C., Tibetan History and Social & Political Structure, 1987 [2023-12-10], (原始内容存档于2021-04-09) 
  • Goldstein, Melvyn C., A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State, University of California Press, 1989, ISBN 978-0-520-06140-8 
    • Goldstein, Melvyn C. A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State (1989), first Indian edition (1993) Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, ISBN 81-215-0582-8 Pagination is identical to University of California edition.
  • Grunfeld, A. Tom, The making of Modern Tibet Revised, Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1996, ISBN 1-56324-713-5 
  • Laird, Thomas (2006) The Story of Tibet ISBN 0-8021-1827-5
  • Snellgrove, David; Richardson, Hugh, A Cultural History of Tibet, London: George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd, 1968, ISBN 0-297-76317-2 

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